Pitched roof: basic concept

SECTION 1.Civil structural elements

buildings

1.1. Concepts of buildings and structures

Any significant construction of various types and purposes, recognized in administrative order suitable for use for a specific purpose, appropriate land allocation and design documentation, is called a structure or structure. In the variety of buildings (structures), the concept "building" is included.

A building is called a land structure that has an internal space intended for a certain type of human activity.

In practical activities, anything that does not apply to buildings is usually called engineering facilities. They, in general, perform purely technical functions. These include: bridges, tunnels, metro stations, television and radio transmitting masts, cooling towers, chimneys, towers, tanks, monuments, obelisks, etc.

For functional purposes, buildings are divided into:

Civil (residential and public), designed to meet household needs and social activities of people;

Industrial, designed to conduct a variety of production activities;

Agricultural, intended for various branches of agricultural production.

Buildings protect the environment within themselves from the effects of adverse environmental factors (temperature, solar radiation, wind, precipitation) and creates a certain microclimate in the room, corresponding to the type of human activity (Figure 1.1).

1.2. Constructive elements of civil buildings

All structural elements of the building can be divided into:

Fencing, separating the room from the external space, or one from the other;

Bearers, perceiving the load acting in the building;

Combining both these functions.

Each building consists of separate interconnected parts ( constructive elements), having a specific purpose. The main structural elements of a civil building are:

Foundations;

Fig. 1.1. Scheme of interaction of the environment with the microclimate

premises

Separate supports;

overlapping;

stairs;
partitions;
windows, doors, balconies and loggias.

The axonometric section of the building (Fig. 1.2) shows its main structural elements.

Foundations is an underground structure that perceives the entire load from the building and transmits it to the ground.

Walls - this is the vertical structural elements of the building. Depending on the location in the building, the walls are divided into external and internal. External walls protect the premises from the external environment. Internal walls Separate the space of the floor into separate rooms and subdivide into longitudinal and transverse. Depending on the design system

Fig. 1.2. Civil building and its elements:

1 - foundation; 2, - the outer wall; 3 - inner wall; 4 - plinth;

5 - interfloor overlapping; 6 - overlapping attic; 7 - septum; 8 - the roof; 9 - the ladder; 10 - basement floor; 11 - pit; 12 - entrance to the building; 13 - balcony; 14 - dormer windows

buildings and the nature of the static work, the outer walls are divided into bearing, self-supporting and non-bearing (hinged), and internal - on the bearing and self-supporting (partitions).

Bearing walls - a structure that perceives the load of its own weight, the weight of the overlying structures on all floors of the building (roofs, roofs) resting on them, wind loads. All these wall loads are transferred to the foundation (Figure 1.3a).

Self-supporting walls are structures that also rely on foundations, but which carry loads only from the weight of all floors of the building and the load from the wind pressure (Figure 1.3a).

Unnecessary (hanging) walls are structures that accept the load of their own weight, wind load only within one storey or

Fig. 1.3 Classification of walls by the nature of static work:

a - bearing and self-supporting; b - hinged; 1 - load-bearing brick;

2 - self-supporting; 3 - panels between floors; 4 - curtain wall panel; 5 - column; 6 - crossbars

their height and transferring them to the supporting elements of the building (racks, columns, poles, bolt, straps, overlapping) (Figure 1.3 b).

Partitions - it's internal self-supporting walls, dividing the space of the floor into separate rooms and resting on the ceilings.

Separate supports - is carrying vertical elements (racks, columns, poles), transferring the load from the ceilings and other elements of the building to the foundation. In this case, the ceilings are supported by beams or crossbars, and the latter in turn rest on columns. Located in the building separate supports, crossbars and ceilings form the spatial frame of the building.

Overlapping These are horizontal fences dividing the inner space of the building into floors and carrying loads, both permanently (from own weight) and temporary (from the weight of people, objects and equipment) and transferring it to horizontal and vertical bearing structures. Depending on the location of the building, the floors are divided into:

Inter-storey - separating adjacent floors;

Attic - overlapping the upper floor and separating it from the attic;

Combined (coverings) - overlapping the top floor and combined with a roof;

Basement - separating the ground floor from the underground or basement.

Roofis a construction that performs a load-bearing and enclosing function that protects the building from rain, wind and overheating from the sun. It consists of a watertight shell - the roof and supporting its supporting elements.

Roofs are attic - having an attic space between the roof and the ceiling of the upper floor, and bescherdachnye (combined), in which the upper ceiling and roof are combined into one structure. In the latter case, the top overlap is called a coating.

Stairs - these are the structures used to communicate between the floors, as well as to evacuate in emergencies. Stairs are internal and external (Fig.1.2).

Window is a structural element of the building, intended for lighting, insolation and airing the room.

Doors - a mobile enclosure designed to communicate between adjacent horizontally placed rooms (internal doors), as well as external, providing access and exit from the building.

Balcony - this is an open area with a fence, projecting beyond the plane outer wall (Fig.1.4a).

Loggia is an open space adjacent to the outer side of the outer wall and fenced on three sides (except the facade) by walls and having a guard rail along the facade (Figure 1.4b). According to the location relative to the plane of the building wall (Fig. 1.4c), the loggias are subdivided:

Fallen, completely located in the dimensions of the building;

Partially sinking, partially buried inside the building;

Hinged (outriggers), completely protruding beyond the plane of the facade.

Fig. 1.4. General view of the balcony and loggia:

A - balcony; B - loggia; B - types of loggias: B-1 - sinking; B-2 - partially sinking; B-3 - hinged; 1 - bearing reinforced concrete slab; 2 - loggia walls; 3 - fencing of balcony and loggia

Bay window represents a part of the living room, fenced off from the plane of the facade outer wall with window openings. In terms of bay windows can have a rectangular, trapezoidal, triangular shape (Figure 1.5). Eckers can start from the first floor or occupy one or more floors in height.

Fig. 1.5. General view of different types of bay windows:

a - bay window combined with a balcony; b - bay window to the entire height of the building;

c - a triangular bay window on several floors

Visor.Over the entrances to the buildings are arranged visors, which protect the entrance doors and entrance area from rain and snow. The visor is usually a reinforced concrete slab, which, for small flights, is sealed and anchored in the masonry of the wall or supported by supports (Figure 1.6).

Pitches. To illuminate and air the cellars in their outer socle walls, windows are arranged at or below the ground level, and before the windows are wells called pits (Figure 1.2).

Fig. 1.6. Visor over the entrance to the building

Entrances to the basement floors. The entrances are usually arranged in the form of open one-side staircases, located in special pits adjacent to the outer wall of the building and enclosed by a retaining wall (Fig. 1.7a). To protect against atmospheric precipitation, such a pit, most often, covered with a roof or enclosed with an annex that has not only a roof, but also light walls (Figure 1.7b).

Fig.1.7. External entrance to the basement:

a - open; b - with a closed annexe

A building is an artificial land structure or interior space intended and adapted for human activity. The structure is an artificial structure, intended purely for technical purposes (posts, chimneys, towers, treatment facilities, etc.).

Any building is a volume limited in space by rectilinear or curvilinear surfaces and divided into individual cells - premises. Theoretically, any building can be represented as a set of three groups of elements: volume-planning (that is, separate rooms in three dimensions); constructive, representing the material basis of the building (construction or architectural structures); building products and parts (a component of building structures). The space-planning elements depicted in the plan are called architectural-planning elements (in two dimensions).

Room refers to a part of the volume of the building, limited to the floor, ceiling and surrounding walls or partitions. Each room is intended for specific purposes and, according to it, has its shape and dimensions in terms of plan, height, lighting (natural, artificial or combined), communication with the external environment, surface finish, etc.

There are basic, auxiliary and technical rooms (for equipment and utilities). Types of rooms are a vestibule, a corridor, a light pocket, an elevator hall.

Tambour - a passageway at the entrance to the building to protect the premises from cold outside air. There are single and double tambours.

The corridor is a long room in the plan, uniting a group of rooms and serving to evacuate people from the building.

Light pocket - adjacent to the corridor room with natural light.

Elevator hall - a room in front of the entrance to the elevator car, usually isolated from the rest of the floor.

The height of the room is the vertical distance from the level of the clean floor of this room to the ceiling plane or to the bottom of the protruding structures from the ceiling plane (if the ceiling surface has projecting ribs or three-dimensional elements).

A group of rooms for different purposes, located in the same plane, forms a floor. The floor consists of a set of rooms, the floors of which are located approximately in one level. By location, the floors are subdivided into above-ground and underground floors. If the level of the clean floor is located above the level of the blind, sidewalk or a planned earth surface, the floor is considered to be above ground level. Accordingly, the building can consist of only one floor (one-story building) or have several floors, placed vertically (multi-storey building). The number of floors is the number of floors. If necessary, the buildings provide floors, floors of which are located below the level of the blind area, sidewalk or a planned earth surface (underground floors). Levels of clean floor floors are marked with a special mark-mark.

By designation Above ground floors are subdivided into residential, mezzanine, attic, attic and technical. For communication between the floors there are stairs, ramps (inclined planes), elevators, escalators. The size and number of steps of stairs in multi-storey buildings are determined by the height of the floor.

Residential floors Are intended for residence or stay of people (accommodation of apartments of apartment houses, offices, offices, etc.).

The mezzanine floor (French Entresol) - is the upper floor, built into the volume of the main floor. Characteristic for mansions and manor houses of the XVIII - first half of the XIX century. Currently provided for in the individual residential buildings, in the buildings of shopping centers, offices, etc.

Loft - a passageway or a semi-passage space within the roof.

The attic floor (French Mansarde - from the name of the French architect F. Mansar) is a room arranged inside a free attic space by warming the enclosing loft structures (high roof slopes). It is used in new construction, during reconstruction.

Technical floor - a floor used to house engineering equipment and laying communications. The technical floor can be located under the building (technical underground), above the top floor of the building (technical attic), in one or more middle floors.

Underground floors are divided into technical underground, basement and basement floors.

Technical undergrounds are walkways or semi-passage floors for placing engineering communications with a floor level below the planning mark of the ground or sidewalk. The minimum height of the rooms in the passages is set at 1.6 m.

The basement floors have a floor level below the planning mark of the ground or sidewalk, buried not more than half the height of the room.

The basement floors are designed with a floor level buried below the planning mark of the ground or sidewalk more than half the height of the room. There can be several basement floors in the building.

tolassification of civil buildings.

Civil buildings, according to their destination, are divided into residential and public buildings. To apartment houses carry apartment type; hostels; hotels; boarding houses, etc.

Among the public buildings are intended for all types of social and everyday life of people. Public buildings that serve the daily needs of people include kindergartens, day nurseries, schools, shops, cafes, canteens, consumer services, etc. The public buildings of the episodic visit include theaters and cinemas, museums, large restaurants, stadiums, palaces of culture and sports.

By the number of floors, civil buildings are distinguished:

Low-rise (up to 2 floors);

Average storeys (3-5 floors);

Elevated storeys (6-9 floors);

Multi-storey (10-25 floors);

High-rise (more than 25 floors).

Buildings are classified according to the main material of the walls: stone, concrete, reinforced concrete, metal, wooden.

By the method of erection: from small-sized elements; from large-sized elements; monolithic.

On fire resistance, buildings are divided into five degrees:

To the first degree belong buildings whose bearing and enclosing structures are made of stone, concrete or w / concrete using sheet and plate incombustible materials.

In buildings of the 2nd degree it is allowed to use unprotected steel structures of coatings.

In buildings of III degree, load-bearing and enclosing structures are made of stone, concrete and w / concrete materials with the use of hard-combustible materials.

The IV degree of fire resistance includes wooden buildings protected from fire and high temperatures (plaster, sheet or plate incombustible materials).

Building structures of the Yth degree are not required for fire resistance limits and fire spreading limits.

Buildings are classified by their durability, which is determined by the period of preservation of the operational qualities of the main structural elements. Buildings are divided into three degrees of durability: I degree - service life of more than 100 years; II - within the limits of 50-100 years; III - less than 20 years.

Depending on the purpose and significance of the building are divided into four classes of capital. Each class has its own degree of durability, fire resistance, landscaping, quality of finishing and the degree of equipping with engineering and sanitation systems.

The first class includes buildings that meet high requirements; to the second - the middle, to the third and fourth - the average, lower and minimum requirements. The buildings of the first class are not limited by number of storeys; the maximum number of storeys of buildings of the second class - 9, the third - 5, the fourth - 2.

Requirements for civil buildings.

The type of the architectural structure depends on its functional purpose, the number and composition of premises, the manner in which they are grouped and the sizes. Types of buildings were not formed immediately, they were determined by the political structure of the country, religion, way of life, people's traditions. Some types of buildings were dying off, new ones appeared, others (for example, apartment houses) were modified. Architecture created an artificial utilitarian and artistic world, opposed to the spontaneous environment, mastered space to meet the material and spiritual needs of man.

The aesthetic value of the building is determined by the expressive decision of its external and internal appearance. The artistically expressive appearance of the building is created by common compositional architectural forms (external and internal volumes, grouping of masses, silhouette, proportions, etc.) and forms that are private to the whole composition of the building (cornices, balconies, window and door frames, decor elements) .

The nature of the construction of the building depends largely on the technological features of building materials and changes as they develop.

Architectural style is called the end result of the development of architectural culture within the same era and one direction. The architectural style has stable features, repeated many times in various buildings and structures: technical - in the form of applied design systems; artistic - in the form of architectural and artistic elements for the decoration of facades and interiors; Ethnographic - in the form of elements that symbolize the ethnic features of the ethnos.

In modern conditions, regardless of their function, civil, technical, sanitary and hygienic, architectural and artistic, operational, fire-fighting, ecological, economic and construction-technological requirements are presented to civil buildings.

Functional requirements It is concluded that the space-planning and structural solutions of the building must correspond to its purpose, the necessary composition and parameters of individual rooms, to provide the best conditions for the technological process taking place in the building. At the same time, it is necessary to provide for the possibility of re-planning the premises in the future in connection with changes in requirements or the technological process that is taking place in the building. Accordingly, the building should provide for safe and comfortable conditions for living or other activities of people.

Technical requirements The construction structures and their interfaces are in accordance with the laws of construction mechanics, physics and chemistry, taking into account the loads and impacts, including climatic, geological, and also the internal environment in the building.

Sanitary and hygienic requirements Include a set of measures to ensure the microclimate of premises (temperature, permissible noise level, humidity, air speed in the premises, illumination and insolation), the availability of special rooms and equipment.

Architectural and artistic requirements Are manifested in the aesthetically meaningful formation of the exterior (exterior) and interior (interior) of the building. The appearance and interiors of the premises should have an emotional impact on the person, create a good mood.

Operational requirements The premises and structures are specified in the design assignment in accordance with their purpose, the characteristics of the external and internal environment, the specified service life, the necessary composition of the engineering equipment in the building (the presence of elevators, heating and ventilation systems, water supply and sewerage, ).

Fire safety requirements include a set of measures to ensure the safety of people during the operation of the building, the timely and unhindered evacuation of people in case of fire, protecting building structures from fire and preventing the spread of fire. Buildings are subdivided according to the degree of fire resistance, classes of constructive and functional fire danger in accordance with SNiP "Fire safety of buildings and structures".

Environmental requirements stipulate the elimination of harmful effects of the technological process flowing in the building on the environment or on the human body, as well as the safety of building materials and products during operation, as well as during the disassembly or reconstruction of the building.

The economic requirements take into account both the initial costs for the erection of the building (engineering surveys, preprojection, design and construction) and operational ones during the pre-specified life of the building (usually up to 80% of all costs), the costs of dismantling and utilization of building structures.

Construction and technological requirements in the development of projects reflect the capabilities of the construction organization and methods of production, which is taken into account in the development of space-planning and design solutions.

In addition to these requirements, additional requirements may be specified in each particular case, especially when reconstructing or restoring buildings. Their list is usually given in the design task.

Planning schemes of civil buildings.

Civil buildings are classified according to a number of characteristics. Depending on the purpose they are divided into residential and public. In turn, each of the allocated groups is classified according to specific functional characteristics.

Civil buildings are divided into buildings of mass construction and unique. Buildings of mass construction are built in large numbers on standard projects to meet the basic needs of people (houses, schools, kindergartens, polyclinics, etc.). Unique buildings that have important public significance are built on individual projects, usually in a single form, for example theaters, museums, palaces of culture, universities, government buildings, and some residential buildings.

According to the number of storeys, civil buildings are divided into five groups:

Low-rise - up to 2 floors;

The average number of storeys - 3 - 5 floors;

Elevated storeys - 6 - 9 floors;

Multi-storey - 10-25 floors;

High-rise - more than 25 floors.

Floors of civil buildings are called: above-ground - at the marking of the floor of premises not lower than the planning mark of the ground; basement, or semi-basement, - when marking the floor of premises below the planning level of the ground, but no more than half the height of the premises; basement - at a mark of a floor of premises below a planning mark of the earth more than on half of height of premises; mansard - with the arrangement of rooms in the volume of the attic. When determining the number of storeys of a building, only the above-ground floors are taken into account.

Planning decisions of civil buildings are very diverse, as they reflect different functional processes taking place under certain conditions. However, this variety of solutions is reduced to just how many planning schemes: the cellular, the hall and their combinations (combined).

The cell scheme is used in those buildings where relatively small, equally sized premises are needed. The cell scheme can be solved by corridor, enfilade, centric (beskorodornoy) and sectional planning schemes.

The corridor layout is characterized by the location of the premises on both sides of the corridor. With one-sided arrangement of rooms, the layout is called gallery. Through the corridor or gallery, there is a connection between the rooms. The corridor scheme is widely used in various civil buildings: dormitories, hotels, boarding schools, administrative, educational, medical and preventive, etc.

The anfilade planning scheme provides for direct connection of adjacent rooms, arranged in series, one after another. The suite scheme, formerly common in residential, palatial and religious buildings, has a limited use: museums and exhibition pavilions, commercial buildings.

The centric planning scheme provides a clearly allocated one main large room, and around it are grouped secondary, smaller areas. Examples of this scheme can be spectacular buildings - theaters, cinemas, concert halls, circuses.

The sectional planning scheme includes a series of repetitive and isolated parts-sections. Within the section of the room can be located under different planning schemes. This scheme is most often used in apartment houses.

Zal'skhema is typical for buildings consisting of one room on the floor - markets, exhibition pavilions, sports facilities, garages, etc.

The combined scheme is based on a combination of the cell and net schemes. In it, large halls are grouped together with smaller rooms. In multifunctional and complex buildings and complexes, as a rule, several planning schemes are combined.

Premises of civil buildings by their role in the functional process (rest, work, study) are divided into several groups.

Basic - correspond to the basic functions of the building (living rooms of apartment houses, school classes and offices, auditoriums of theaters and cinemas, shopping halls of shops).

Auxiliary - designed to provide the basic functions of the building, but do not define them (conference rooms, archives, foyer and lobby of theaters, store rooms, museums, etc.).

Servicemen - increase comfort and hygienic conditions, but do not have a direct relation to the main function of the building (vestibules, halls, sanitary units, public building buffets).

Communication - necessary for communications inside the building (stairs, elevators, escalators, corridors, galleries).

Technical (sometimes entire floors) - are designed to house engineering equipment (engine rooms of elevators, garbage collection chambers, rooms for ventilation and air conditioning).

The foundations are the lower load bearing parts of the building, which perceive all the loads from the building and transfer them to the ground. The main body of the basement is called the basement body, the lower, usually broadened part - a pillow, the lower surface of the basement is the sole, and the upper ones, projecting along the sides of the wall, horizontal planes - are cut off.

Walls are called vertical structures located outside and inside the building. Walls that rely on the foundation and perceive the load of their own weight and other structures (from ceilings, coatings, etc.) are called carriers. Walls can be self-supporting, if they transfer to the foundation the load only from wind and own weight on all floors of the building. The walls are called load-bearing or hinged when they serve only as fences, perceive their own weight and wind loads within a single storey and transmit them to floor-bearing structures. Non-carrying walls are also internal partitions, and hinged walls are panel walls of frame buildings.

The lower part of the wall, located directly above the foundation, is called the socle. The plinth can protrude or sink relative to the outer plane of the wall. The top of the socle is usually at the ground floor level of the first floor.

The upper part of the wall is usually completed with a cornice, which is a horizontal profiled protrusion that protects the building wall from atmospheric precipitation. The size of the ledge of the eaves is called the eaves removal.

Above the eaves sometimes make a parapet - a low wall, serving as a fence roof. Holes in the walls for windows and doors are called openings, and their filling with window and door blocks.

A bridge is a design that covers the opening from above and supports the overlying part of the wall.

Partitions called the sections of the wall, located between the apertures, and the grooves in the wall - niches.

Individual pillars are called pillars, pillars or columns that support floors, roofs, and sometimes walls. Columns in combination with horizontal structural elements (girders and crossbars) form an internal supporting frame in frame buildings.

Overlappings are horizontal structures that separate the internal space, buildings on: floors. Overlappings perceive the load from people and equipment and transfer it to walls or separate supports. They provide a spatial unchangeability of the building, like horizontal diaphragms of rigidity. Overlappings are divided into inter-floor, dividing adjacent, in height floors, attic, separating the upper floor from the attic, above the basement, separating the first floor from the basement and the lower, separating the first floor from the underground. The upper surface of the floor between the floors is called the floor, the lower one - the ceiling.

The roof protects the building, from the atmospheric precipitations. It consists of a roof (waterproof shell), a foundation under the roof (roofing, flooring or concrete preparation) and a supporting structure (rafters or reinforced concrete panels). The roof, together with the attic ceiling, forms the covering of the building.

Gentle flat shells, in which the roof is combined with the construction of the attic floor, is called a combined roof.

To drain the water, the roof must have a slope, which depends on the material of the roof. The slope of the roof is denoted by the ratio of the lift height to the half of the block width of the building shell e / 2 or the angle of the roof slope to the horizon. Depending on the slope distinguish flat and pitched roofs.

Crossing of skates is called an edge, and downwards - a razlobolkom or endow.

Horizontally located ribs are called skate rims.

The upper part of the end wall of the gable roof, forming a triangle, bounded by two slopes and a horizontal cornice, is called a pediment, and if there is no horizontal cornice, then the triangular section of the wall is called a tong.

Stairs serve for vertical communication between floors and the adjacent territory. Stairs can be opened without enclosing walls or closed, placed in special rooms called staircases.

Stairs consist of inclined structural elements - ladder marches with steps and horizontal staircases (storeyed floors, located on the level of the floor and intermediate or inter-floor areas). Vertical railings of stairs are called handrails.

According to the number of marches, one, two, three, and four-mast staircases are distinguished in plan, while in form they are rectilinear and curvilinear (screw).

Depending on the construction scheme and the manufacturing technique, the stairs can be made of small or large elements. Fine-element ladders of factory manufacturing consist of steps, oblique lines, subcausal or area beams and platforms.

Large-scale prefabricated staircases are assembled from two elements of monolithic marches and platforms or from one march element combined with a half-site. The horizontal surface of a step is called a tread, and its height is a riser.

The slope of the ladder march is considered the ratio of its height to the horizontal projection of the march, which is called the laying (for example, the slope of the ladder is 1: 2, if, D = 3000). Sometimes the slope is determined in degrees of the inclination angle of the march to the horizon (for example, = 26 ° 40 "), but more often the slope is expressed as the ratio of the height of the riser to the width of the tread (for example, the slope of the ladder is 1: 2, if the riser is 150 and the tread is 300 ).

Windows serve to illuminate the room with natural light and for their ventilation. Window openings are filled with glass elements - window blocks consisting of boxes and window binders, which can be single or double, deaf or folded.

Lanterns are special structures in the form of glazed superstructures arranged in the coating, to illuminate the room from above and simultaneously for their ventilation.

Doors serve to communicate rooms with each other and to isolate one adjacent room from the other.

The gate is arranged in those cases when it is necessary to deliver large equipment to the premises or to pass vehicles.

Doors and gates are external or internal. They consist of boxes and canvases. Depending on the number of canvases they are divided into single-field, two-field and one-and-a-half. By the way of opening, they can be swinging, sliding or lifting. The dimensions of the door and door depend on the purpose of the premises and the nature of the functional process.

Organization of the entrance area.

The organization of the input group is possible at any stage of building operation, but planning is most expedient at the design stage, only the designers and builders do not always pay due attention to this.

The correct organization of the entrance area with mud protection coatings is an increase in the lifetime of floor coverings, not only in areas directly adjacent to the entrances, but practically on all floors. In heavy snowfall, even with the proper arrangement of the entrance zone, snow can be carried on shoes to the upper floors, getting stuck in the soles of the soles and in the notches at the high heels.

The entrance group consists of three parts:

1st zone - in front of the building entrance

2nd zone - in the vestibule

The third zone is in the lobby.

The size of the entrance zone is determined in such a way that a person does four steps for each dirt barrier. This achieves an average cleansing effect.

Selecting the coverage for 1 zone, it should be remembered that coatings with an aluminum profile are more often used in commercial real estate where high traffic intensity. It is impossible to save on these coatings, as they retain the main amount of large dirt: gravel, coarse sand, snow and ice flakes that have absorbed reagents and oil products. For this purpose, a pit is made in front of the entrance, preferably heated, if for some reason the pit can not be made, then the coating should be framed aluminum profile.

2 zone, or vestibule, can be equipped with a vinyl stain-proof covering with cells "antikabuk", or a coating with an aluminum profile with pile inserts.

Inside the building, where the third zone begins, the best option is a pile covering, the so-called mud protection carpets. In our country in the summer often remove protective coatings - this is absolutely wrong: dirt is still brought into the room, it's just dry and barely noticeable. If you refuse from the dirt-resistant carpet, even with the most thorough and constant collection, most of the dirt will still be carried throughout the building.

Providing connection of the basement with the zero floor.

aboutmain building structures.

The building is a multifunctional object, erected with the purpose of providing comfortable living and various kinds of human activities.

The construction is a voluminous material building unit, consisting of appropriate structures. Facilities can be used to store equipment, materials, various kinds of products, for temporary stay of people, etc. Facilities can be objects such as: aerodromes, power lines, pipelines, overpasses, towers, tunnels, etc.

Buildings and structures are divided into residential, public and industrial, and have certain structural elements.

Foundation, this underground part buildings and structures, which perceives the entire load of the building object. The foundations are tape or columnar. Tape foundation is laid, following the entire perimeter of the wall, and the columnar foundation in the form of separate support elements.

Walls divide by purpose and location into external, internal and load-bearing building elements. The purpose of external walls is to protect the premises from the effects of the environment. The inner walls divide the rooms in the building itself according to the design. Bearing walls transfer the total load from the ceilings, the roof and their own weight to the foundation. In addition to bearing walls, there are still hinged and self-supporting walls. Self-supporting walls are considered to be the corresponding parts of buildings that transmit the load only of their own weight. The curtain walls, in the form of separate plates or panels, are attached to the columns and give them a load of their own weight.

Partitions, these are internal planning structures that separate adjacent rooms inside the building.

Plinth, this is the lower part of the outer wall, which is located directly on the foundation.

Scaffolding It is designed for drainage of moisture, with precipitation of atmospheric precipitation from the walls of the building.

Overlapping, this horizontal construction, which is located inside the building and divides it in height into floors. Overlappings are interstitial, basement, basement, basement, attic.

Coating, this is the top element of the building, enclosing the building's premises from the impact of the environment and protecting them from atmospheric precipitation. This structural element combines the functionality of the ceiling and roof.

Roof - the upper waterproofing layer of the roof or covering of the building.

Rafters - bearing parts of the roofing in the form of a beam supported by walls and internal supports.

Flight of stairs - an inclined design, which, as a rule, has not less than eighteen steps.

Kosoura, it is reinforced concrete or steel beams, located at an angle and their endings resting on the platform. These structural elements serve as the basis for fastening the steps of the stairs.

ABOUTcivil building structures.

Enclosing structures of buildings and structures, building structures (walls, ceilings, coverings, filling of openings, partitions, etc.) that limit the volume of the building (structure) and separate it into separate rooms. The main purpose of O.K.) protection (enclosure) of premises from temperature effects, wind, moisture, noise, radiation, etc., in what is their difference from the bearing structures perceiving loads; this difference is conditional; often the enclosing and bearing functions are combined in one construction (walls, partitions), slabs of overlap (see Overlap) and coatings (See Coverage), etc.). O.K. is divided into external (or external) and internal. External serves mainly to protect against atmospheric influences, internal) mainly to divide the internal space of the building and soundproofing.

According to the method of manufacture, O.K. is divided into prefabricated (assembled from prefabricated elements of factory fabrication) and erected on the site of construction. In the latter case, the term "monolithic" is used for brick, concrete and reinforced concrete O.K. Depending on the constructive solution, O.K. is divided into simple and complex (composite). Simple ("single-layer") O.K. is made of one material or from homogeneous piece products (brick walls, lightweight concrete panels, gypsum partitions, etc.). Complex ("multilayered") shells consist of several elements or layers, for example, bearing, insulating, finishing.

Among O.K. particular importance is attached to the outer walls, which determine the architectural appearance of the building; often the material of the walls also characterizes the constructive type of the building) large-block, large-panel, wooden (chopped or shielded), brick. The walls also play the role of vertical apertures (see Diaphragm) of rigidity.

The performance characteristics of external heating systems should correspond to local climatic characteristics and provide the necessary sanitary and hygienic and comfortable conditions in the premises. Internal O.K requirements for proper isolation from air and impact noise, from heat and moisture adjacent rooms. O.K. should have high strength, rigidity, resistance, fire resistance. It is also necessary that the texture, color, and other decorative qualities of the surfaces of the O. k. Meet the purpose of buildings and premises, contribute to the achievement of their architectural expressiveness.

An important property of the O.K. is their longevity, the degree of which is established depending on the class of the building and the materials used, taking into account the actual conditions of wear and tear on the surface as a result of external influences. When using prefabricated structures, special attention is paid to the structural solutions of the connecting units and the quality of the joints (joints, connections, fasteners and fittings) to avoid the possibility of destruction of the connecting elements during the service life of the building ) generally.

The main trends in the development of modern O.K .: preferential use of prefabricated large-scale industrial construction with a high degree of factory readiness, including large wall panels (oakturennyh and glazed), enlarged complex floors with finished floor, volume elements (blocks) with the finish of all surfaces ; improvement of designs of prefabricated elements and their connecting units with a view to reducing the laboriousness of manufacturing and assembling a building and a building as a whole; weight loss O.K .; use for the manufacture of local building materials

Load-bearing structures of civil buildings.

The design of the structures of a building of any designation begins with the solution of the fundamental principle task - the choice of the structural system of the building proceeding from the functional and technical and economic requirements.

The constructive system is an interconnected set of vertical and horizontal structural load-bearing structures of the building, which, taking in all the loads and impacts that fall on it, together provide strength, spatial stiffness and stability of the structure.

The choice of the constructive system determines the role of each structural element in the spatial operation of the building.

Horizontal load-bearing structures (coverings and ceilings) perceive all the vertical loads that fall on them and transmit them to vertical bearing structures (walls, columns, etc.), which in turn transmit loads through the foundation to the ground (the base of the building). Horizontal load-bearing structures, as a rule, play the role of hard disks - horizontal diaphragms of rigidity. They perceive and redistribute horizontal loads and impacts (wind, seismic) between vertical bearing structures.

The horizontal load-carrying structures of civil buildings with a height of more than two floors are generally of the same type and represent a reinforced concrete disc - prefabricated (from individual reinforced concrete solid, multi-hollow or ribbed slabs), prefabricated-monolithic or monolithic. Also, in multi-storey industrial buildings (less often - in civil buildings), floors are used over metal beams (beam) and profiled steel flooring. Based on fire protection requirements in some cases, these ceilings are subsequently cemented with concrete.

Vertical load-bearing structures in comparison with horizontal structures are more diverse. There are the following types of vertical bearing structures:

Rod (rack racks);

Planar (walls, diaphragms);

Space-volume elements in height in the floor (three-dimensional blocks);

Internal volumetric hollow rods (open or closed section) to the height of the building (stiffeners);

Volumetric spatial support structures on the height of the building in the form of a thin-walled shell of a closed section (shell).

Accordingly, five main structural systems of buildings were named for the kind of vertical bearing structure:

Wireframe;

Frameless (walled);

Volumetric-block;

Truncated;

Shell.

tthe types of foundations of civil buildings.

A foundation can be needed to construct any structure in the garden, if it is necessary to evenly distribute the load over a hard surface. Whether you are building a foundation for a retaining wall, a garden staircase or an access road - the basic principles are the same.

Ribbon foundation

Small buildings for brick pots or stone walls must be built on a ribbon foundation. To do this, dig a trench, fill it with sand, compacted with crushed stone or broken brick, and then poured with concrete.

The width of the foundation must be twice the width of the wall, so that its weight is distributed at an angle of 45 ° from its base (the so-called "scattering angle"). And the depth of the foundation depends on the height and thickness of the wall, as well as the type of soil, but usually it is half its width.

Brick foundation

Sometimes it is necessary to lay the foundation under the wall or other object, the height of the masonry of which is less than 6 rows of bricks, and the length is less than 6 m. For this it is sufficient to make a strip foundation of bricks laid crosswise on a well-compacted subsoil, covered with a thin layer of sand. Bricks are poured with a liquid cement "creamy" solution.

Foundation under the stairs

When constructing the stairs on the slope at the base of the span, under the first riser (the vertical part of the step), a concrete foundation is made, so that the whole structure does not move down. The treads (horizontal parts of the steps) should be laid on a well-compacted layer of crushed stone, and the intermediate risers - on the edge of the lower tread or on the gravel, poured over each tear.

For individual steps connecting, for example, two levels of the surface, you can lay out the strip foundation along the perimeter of the steps, and inside fill it with tamped rubble.

Foundation under paving

Plates, paving blocks and other materials for paving should be laid on a carefully leveled, firm and strong surface, usually on a well-compacted soil, but if the soil is soft, you can pour the gravel, followed by tamping to prevent the paving.

In the layer of rubble there are many voids, even after sealing it with a garden roller. They can be filled by covering with a thin layer of sand or a dry cement mixture (for example, consisting of one part of cement and three parts of sand) and leveling the back side of the rake (remember to clean the tools thoroughly after working with liquid concrete, because the dried concrete is very difficult to remove ).

Plates for paving or other small elements used for the construction of the coating can be laid directly on the sand layer, fixing them with concrete mortar, although some types of paving stones can be laid on a prepared sand "pillow" and without mortar.

Foundation in formwork

Fig. 138. The foundation in the formwork. A trench with a formwork that towers above the ground, which is kept pegged around the perimeter pegs, filled with well-tampered gravel and a thin layer of sand, filled with concrete mortar to the top of the formwork.

Belt foundation is poured with concrete mortar

Fig. 139. Ribbon foundation. Trench filled with well-tampered gravel, a thin layer of sand and filled with concrete mortar to the level of pegs driven into the foundation. Used for small structures and walls in the garden.

SOIL CONDITIONS. In order for the foundation to hold the structure, it is built on firm ground, i.e. at a depth of 10 to 30 cm from the surface of the earth.

Subsoil types also differ in their bearing capacity: calcareous soil, for example, can withstand more weight than alumina, and sandy - on the contrary. Thus, the softer the soil, the wider the foundation is made.

The climate plays an important role in determining the depth of the foundation: since seasonal deformation can lead to the appearance of cracks in it, the foundation should be made deeper than the freezing level of the soil.

When constructing the foundation, you can either fill a trench with a small layer of concrete solution, and lay out the rest of its space bricklaying, or fill only with mortar, saving on bricks.

Solid foundation

If, for a light shed or a boiler, the paving slabs laid on a pre-prepared "pillow" of the sheep can serve as a foundation, then large garden structures, such as a garage or summer cottage, should be installed on a more solid foundation - on a solid foundation (prepared "pillow" "Pour concrete solution).

Such a foundation is also made for access roads, parking areas and utility tracks as a basis for covering.

Formwork from the boards is built along the perimeter of the erected structure and fixed with pegs driven into the ground (see the foundation in the formwork), and then poured a "cushion" prepared from sand and gravel to the edges of the formwork, which after final hardening of the concrete is removed.

fromshadows of civil buildings.

The wall of the building is the main building envelope. The walls of buildings, apart from the enclosing functions, also carry the supporting functions. They serve as supports for the perception and transmission of vertical and horizontal loads.

The walls have the following requirements: strength, heat resistance, soundproofing ability, fire resistance, durability, architectural expressiveness and economy.

The walls are external and internal.

External walls are divided according to the nature of the static work on:

Bearing walls. They perceive and transfer to the foundation of the load from overlapping, coatings, wind pressure, etc .;

Self-supporting walls. They rely on the foundation and carry the load only from their own weight (within all floors of the building). To ensure stability, these walls must be interfaced with the frame of the building;

Non-essential (including hinged) walls. They perceive their own weight only within one storey, the weight of these walls is transferred to the frame or other supporting structures of the building.

Internal walls are divided into:

Bearers, which, like the outer load-bearing walls, perceive and transfer to the foundation of the load from overlappings, coatings. Internal walls are often used for the installation of channels and niches for ventilation, flues, water and sewer pipes etc. Together with the ceilings, the bearing walls form a stable spatial system of the bearing frame of the building;

Non-load-bearing - partitions, intended only for dividing rooms, which are installed directly on the floor;

Self-supporting walls, which perform the functions of diaphragms of rigidity in frame buildings.

According to the method of erection, the wall is divided into:

National teams. They are assembled from prefabricated factory-made components;

Monolithic. As a rule, they are made of concrete. For their erection use mobile or sliding formwork;

Walls of manual laying - from small-piece materials on solutions.

Columns and self-supporting pillars

Massive bearing walls can be replaced by rows of supports. Structural elements that are rod-shaped and most often vertical, carry static loads to the foundation and, as a result of the creation of intermediate spaces between them (intercolumnies), an optical expansion of the closed wall takes place with the transition to a transparent boundary of space. Space and parts of spaces can be joined in the same way as you can merge outer and inner spaces using supports instead of massive facades. The shape and material of the supports have been repeatedly changed. Already in the early period of history, it was common to use a wooden pillar, which is still used today as a support. In more advanced forms, it can be found in modern mast structures, in concrete masts fixed in the foundation holes, in the roof support or in order to strengthen the wall. A stone buttress can have not only a square or rectangular cross-section, but also be round or polygonal.

Depending on the architectural composition, stand-alone buttresses and pilasters, corner pylons (posts) and buttresses are distinguished. The very name of the composite columns and pillars of the cross section indicates a complex outline. For modern steel and reinforced concrete skeleton structures, the concept of a buttress has been replaced by a general designation - a support. Such kind of supports should no longer necessarily be vertical, they can have a Y, V or A-shape.

Any building support element in the architecture of past eras was a column, the classical form of which came from the time of Greek antiquity. A column with a capital, a trunk and a base is the architectural element closest to sculpture. The strength of expressiveness and the dignity of the image of the column determined, on the one hand, many of its variants and significance in the theory of architecture, and, on the other, its exclusivity. Often the use of the column was allowed only for selected architectural tasks and for special customers. Because of the beauty of the perception of its image, the column was sometimes isolated from the architectural work itself and used as a monument in the form of a triumphal column. An independent life in architecture can have a number of columns (colonnades) carrying an entablement, or columns, overlapped by a number of arches (arcades).

Initially, the Roman columns strongly affected their ancient origin, but soon simple capital in the form of a cube and compressed trunks gave them new forms that can not be confused with anything. The capitals of the Late Roman period, adorned with sculptural images, are incomparable to nothing else. The combination of two or four columns from the end of the Romanesque period separated from the composite pillar, buttress, surrounded by several columns with different barrel thicknesses.

Only in the late Gothic period new forms of pillars replaced round and composite pillars: slender polygonal pillars without a base and capitals carried relatively flat mesh and star vaults. Romanesque small twin columns, connected in the center by a knot, are the same species as the late Gothic pillars in the form of tree trunks. During the Renaissance, preference was given to the Tuscan warrant - a relatively modest Roman Doric column with a smooth trunk. During the German Renaissance, it was completed with columns in the form of a balustrade or candelabra, the trunks of which seemed composed of many separate elements. The baroque pathos corresponded to a rich Corinthian warrant with a capital of acanthus leaves and deep flutes, which was used even for purely ornamental columns and pilasters. The baroque details also include the trunks of columns curved in the form of a spiral. In the period of classicism, three famous Greek orders with Doric, Ionic and Corinthian columns were copied.

Historicism used all the historical forms of columns and, above all, for metal supports. For engineering structures, as well as for lattice structures, as a rule, steel supports from the rolling profile were used. Antipathy to the world forms of the period of historicism made the column a rare visitor in modern architecture.

The room with a stove, the so-called residential part of the rural house in the lower German house of the hall type. Like everywhere in the folk architecture of Central Europe, where regions dominated by forests were prevalent, half-timbered structures were common. Here wooden supports also carry a wooden attic floor. The decoration of the capitals, bases and enthisis of the column are borrowed from stone architecture. Furniture in the corner for eating has baroque features.

Partitions of civil buildings.

In residential and public buildings, depending on the purpose, there are partitions between rooms, inter-apartment and partitions, enclosing sanitary units and kitchens.

Partitions of civil buildings should have good soundproofing qualities, fire resistance, low weight, nail-making should not have cracks and cracks, should be industrial and economical. To the partitions of sanitary units and kitchens, additional requirements are imposed: they must not absorb moisture and have a smooth surface that allows wet cleaning.

By the type of materials, partitions of civil buildings can be wooden, of fibrolite slabs, brick, of gypsum concrete, expanded clay concrete and cinder blocks, glassware.

Wooden partitions can be boarded, paneled, framed and joinery.

Boarded single partitions are made of boards of 50 mm thickness, which are installed vertically on the lower wooden strapping laid on the floor. Surfaces of boarded partitions are plastered with lime mortar on shingles or plastered with sheets of dry plaster.

Shield partitions are assembled from prefabricated wood panels consisting of two or three layers of boards lined with drenches. The thickness of the two-layer shields is 50-80 mm, the three-layer shields are 57-87 mm. The surfaces of the panel partitions are plastered.

Skeletal-sheathing partitions consist of a frame, planked double-sided plating with filling the space between the lining with lightweight porous fillers or fibrolite slabs. The surfaces of the partitions are plastered.

In the frame-sheet partitions, the vertical frames of the frame, installed through 80-100 cm, are lined with sheets of dry plaster or wood-fiber plates, and the cavities are filled with fibrolite or reed.

Fibrolite partitions can be made without covering, but with plastering of surfaces with a cement-sand mortar.

Joiner partitions are made from clean carpentry boards or particle board with subsequent painting with oil paints or lining with decorative films. Wooden partitions are used in wooden buildings and in low-rise stone buildings in areas where the forest is a local building material. Strengthen the wooden partitions to the ceilings, walls and join each other directly with nails or with the help of various metal parts: anchors, clamps, staples, ruff.

Brick partitions are a thickness of 1/2 or 1/4 of the brick in the solution, followed by plastering the surfaces. If the height of the partitions is more than 3 m and the length is more than 5 m, reinforcing steel with a diameter of 4-6 mm is placed in the seams every 5-6 rows of masonry. The ends of the reinforcement are fixed to the walls and brick pillars building with ruff. Brick partitions are not industrial and use them for small volumes of work in areas where large-size partitions and panels are not factory-set up.

Partitions gypsum and gypsum-concrete are arranged from plates of factory manufacture in the size of 800 × 400 mm and thickness 80 100 mm, established on a gypsum or gypsum-limy solution. Partitions made of plates are made in one or two layers with an air layer. Such partitions in rooms with excessive moisture do not apply, since gypsum loses strength when wet.

In rooms with high humidity (bathrooms, laundries, etc.) use partitions from cinder block hollow slabs and hollow ceramic stones.

The most widely used at present during the erection of civil buildings are panel partitions made of concrete, claydite-concrete and cinder block panels of factory manufacturing the size of a room and 80-160 mm thick. Gypsum-concrete panels are manufactured in factories using the method of vibro-rolling made of gypsum concrete reinforced with wooden slats, and clay concrete blocks and cinder blocks are in cassettes. In the factory conditions, the surface of the panel partitions is prepared for painting or wallpapering. After the installation of panel partitions in the design position of the cranes, they are attached to the walls and to each other by steel yokes, ruffs or welding of embedded parts.

Glass partitions of civil buildings can be made of sheet ordinary, thickened, reinforced or patterned glass on a wooden, steel or aluminum frame, as well as from bulk glass blocks and profile glass.

Glass partitions do not require subsequent finishing and are distinguished by high quality and decorative properties, especially in the case of using colored glass.

Sound insulation of partitions. The important quality of partitions in civil buildings is soundproofing. To increase the sound insulation of the partitions during their erection, it is necessary to monitor the sealing of seams and cracks in matings with walls and ceilings, protecting the slots of the tent or felt felt moistened in alabaster or clay mortar. Good sound insulation has partitions with an air gap between the layers of insulation. Partitions should not be installed on clean floors, but should be supported on beams or directly on floors. In places where the floor joins the partitions, soundproof layers must be laid. Between the ceiling and the partition, a gap of 10-15 mm is left, followed by a prokonopatka of its pack, soaked in a solution, and subsequent sealing with a solution.

Doors and openings.

The door is a movable fence in the wall opening or partitions. Elements of filling the doorway include: a door U-shaped box with a quarter to the binding office; door leaf hung on the box.

Doors are subdivided according to the following features: by location in the building: external (entrance to the apartment), internal, cabinet (near the built-in cabinets), service (leading to the basement, attic), front (at the entrance to the building); by the number of canvases: single-floor, half-floor (with two canvases of different widths), two-field; by the nature of the fence: deaf, semi-glazed, glazed; by the way of opening: opening in one direction, in both directions, sliding, folding, rotating.

For the convenience of evacuation, most doors in civil buildings open outside, except for the apartment buildings and the entrance to the apartment.

Fastening the door blocks

Door leaf construction

The door unit is a door frame with a canvas hung on it. Installed in the opening of stone walls or partitions such a block is protected from decay, in addition, it is fixed, like window blocks, to wooden liners, embedded in the slopes of the opening. The threshold for most of the exterior doors, including balcony doors, is slightly elevated. The door block in the opening of the partition is installed in one plane (flush) from one of the fence surfaces. Then it is attached to the bars that frame the opening, or to the wooden liners. Close the gaps between the box and the partition, and the joint is closed with the casing.

Diffusible doors and hatches, door devices.

Doors leading to the basement, to the attic, the loopholes to the attic or to the combined roof for fire safety requirements are difficult to fire. Cloths of such doors and hatches on both sides are covered with asbestos or felt dipped in clay, and protected with sheet steel. The surface of the door frames is also covered with sheet steel, but without the lining of felt and asbestos.

Door devices are designed for hanging the canvas, opening, closing and fixing them in a certain position. They are made of metal, plastics and other materials. Door devices depending on the location can be right and left.

Roofs of civil buildings.

The upper structural part of buildings, designed to protect against weathering (rain, snow, sunlight, wind) is called a roof.

The roof consists of a bearing and enclosing parts. Load-bearing roof structures perceive loads from snow, wind, their own weight and transfer them to the walls or frame of the building. The guarding part serves as a waterproofing and thermal insulation protection and consists of a roof and a base under it.

According to the geometric form, depending on the shape and size of buildings in the roof plan, there are attic - one, two

The device pitched roofs.

The roof is the final stage of the construction of a country house. The reliability of the entire structure depends on how well the roof construction and materials from which it is constructed are selected, as well as the comfortable living of the tenants.

In order not to be mistaken in the choice of construction and roofing materials for the erection of the roof, we recommend that you contact the specialists: Ursa pitched roof. In this article we will talk about the types of pitched roofs, their design features.

The topic of today's discussion will be the consideration of structural elements of civil buildings. Usually we consider the structural elements of the building separately.

I wanted to put everything together and describe all the structural elements of buildings for a more complete representation of this concept. The building contains an internal space that is intended and adapted for human activities.

All the elements of buildings can be divided into enclosing (separating rooms from external space or one from another), bearing (perceiving the loads in the building) and the elements , combining these two functions.

Foundation - a design that perceives the entire load from the structure with its transfer to the ground.

Walls in the building — outdoor or internal are vertical fencing. They are subdivided:

bearing walls - carry the whole load of overlapping , the roof, other constructions of the building and, together with its own weight, are transferred to its foundations;
self-supporting walls - rely on foundation and carry a load of their own weight;
curtain walls (hinged) - are only fences and are supported by flooring on other elements of the structure;

Overlapping - horizontal fences dividing the entire internal space into floors, and also carrying loads as constant - own weight, and useful (equipment, objects, weight of people). In addition, the floors connect the walls, thereby increasing their stability, greatly increasing the spatial rigidity of the structure. Overlapping is called:

interstoreyif they share adjacent floors;
top or attic (if there is an attic), when the upper floor overlaps;
lower, separating the lower floor from the underground;

Separate supports - vertical bearing elements of columns, pillars, racks transferring all load from the floor, other structural elements of civil buildings directly to the foundation. The overlappings are sometimes supported directly on the columns, but according to the rules, mounted on them by special powerful beams, called a bolt or run. The bolts and supports located inside the structure form the frame of the structure.

Roof Is a design that protects the structure from the top of the wind, overheating by sunlight, precipitation. It consists of a waterproof layer - the roof and supporting elements supporting it. Roof and attic floor together make up complex construction, called coated, also referring to structural elements.

Coatings there are:

attic - When between a cold roof and the warmed attic overlapping there is a space called an attic;
bescherdachnye - when the attic ceiling and attic are absent, then the roof of the heated buildings is made warmed. An example of an uncovered cover can be a combined roof, in which the roof and the top overlap are combined into one common structure.

Partitions - non-curtain internal walls, which rely on the ceiling and divide the floor area into different rooms.

Stairs - the structural elements of the building, intended for communication between the floors inside it. They are:

external - for quick evacuation of people from the building;
internal, which for fire protection requirements are located in walls enclosed by walls - staircases;

Window — Are intended for ventilation of premises and their illumination.

Doors - serve to separate one room from another. Entrance door is designed to protect the premises, apartments from intruders.

Other components — balconies , peaks over the door, pits at the basement windows, etc. - they all fulfill their function.

I photographed and put a photo of a residential complex, the construction of which was supervised.

I briefly described the structural elements of civil buildings and introduced you to each individually. Now, even if you are not a builder, you will easily understand the construction terminology.

SECTION 1.Civil structural elements

buildings

1.1. Concepts of buildings and structures

A building is called a land structure that has an internal space intended for a certain type of human activity.

For functional purposes, buildings are divided into:

Civil (residential and public), designed to meet household needs and social activities of people;

Industrial, designed to conduct a variety of production activities;

Agricultural, intended for various branches of agricultural production.

1.2. Constructive elements of civil buildings

All structural elements of the building can be divided into:

Fencing, separating the room from the external space, or one from the other;

Bearers, perceiving the load acting in the building;

Combining both these functions.

Each building consists of separate interconnected parts (structural elements) having a specific purpose. The main structural elements of a civil building are:

Foundations;

Fig. 1.1. Scheme of interaction of the environment with the microclimate

premises

Separate supports;

overlapping;

stairs;
partitions;
windows, doors, balconies and loggias.

The axonometric section of the building (Fig. 1.2) shows its main structural elements.

Foundations is an underground structure that perceives the entire load from the building and transmits it to the ground.

Walls - this is the vertical structural elements of the building. Depending on the location in the building, the walls are divided into external and internal. External walls protect the premises from the external environment. Internal walls divide the floor space into separate rooms and are divided into longitudinal and transverse. Depending on the design system