Pitched roof: the basic concept. Constructive elements of civil buildings

§ 1 What is architecture? Functional, technical, aesthetic and economic qualities of architecture

Despite the fact that the origin of architecture refers to the time of the primitive communal system, a clear definition that such architecture does not exist. Architecture is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon. In Greek, the word "architect" means "the main builder".
   A somewhat approximate definition of architecture may be the following: architecture, a system of buildings and structures that form a spatial environment for the life and activities of people, and the very art of creating these buildings and structures in accordance with the laws of beauty.
   Architecture is closely related to art, since buildings and structures, being material, are objects that affect the emotions (feelings) of a person.
   The main quality of any architectural structure should be the use, strength, beauty. These provisions are combined by a generalized economic indicator. In the modern sense, use means the right choice of sizes and shapes of buildings or premises, creating optimal conditions for the person to perform the appropriate functional processes. Strength and stability depend on the constructive construction of buildings or structures, the materials used and the ability of structures to perceive force and non-force impacts.
   Architectural and artistic requirements refer to the internal spaces of buildings, as well as to their appearance. Of particular importance is the proportionality of parts (a system of proportions) and the proportionality of the whole (buildings, structures) and their individual forms. The architectural and artistic qualities of any structure are determined by the criteria of beauty.

§ 2 Design Objectives

The continuously evolving process of the emergence of new types of buildings and structures is accompanied by the development of appropriate areas of construction equipment and, first of all, structures and construction materials, as the basic means of implementing any architectural and construction design in kind.
   In the general interrelated system of searching for feasible constructive solutions, three basic levels of subsystems can be defined:
   - at 1, the highest level in the city scale, residential area or microdistrict is decided the choice of the main types of buildings, their number of storeys, structural systems, architectural appearance;
   - at 2, intermediate level, types and constructions of buildings for a concrete construction site, subordinated to the general plan, are determined;
   - Level 3 reveals the functional links of individual building elements among themselves, assesses the conditions of their work, selects materials, shapes and sizes, designs the projected element.
   As a result, the whole process of designing individual structural elements of a building is reduced to identifying specific conditions in which they are in the structure of a building, based on an assessment of all local possibilities for choosing their architectural and constructive solutions that ensure high reliability and economy of the element.

§ 3 Basic Provisions in the Field of Urban Development

Urban construction is a complex of measures for the planning and improvement of new and existing settlements. This is a circle of issues of socio-economic, sanitary and hygienic, having in its composition the engineering and architectural content.
   Socio-economic requirements provide for the creation of favorable living conditions for the population, as well as the rational use of urban areas.
   Sanitary and hygienic requirements are reduced to providing in the populated areas of healthy conditions: a normal microclimate, a clean air pool and water spaces, insolation of premises and ventilation of the development areas.
The issues of engineering preparation of urban areas include engineering equipment and organization of urban transport and road network.
   Architectural and artistic content provides for the creation of an integral three-dimensional composition of each inhabited place with the use and enrichment of the local landscape.
   Urban planning solves the following problems:
   1. Placement of productive forces and resettlement of the population.
   2. Formation of cities on the basis of city-forming factors.
   3. Placement of town-planning objects in the process of forming the district planning.
   4. Formation of structural units of cities and towns (districts, neighborhoods, quarters and other repetitive structural elements).
   5. Engineering training and protection of territories.
   6. Engineering equipment of cities and towns.
   7. Network of highways and highways.
   8. Reconstruction and restoration of cities and towns.
   The general compositional idea of the formation of cities or towns is determined by the master plan.
   The issues of architecture and town planning are closely linked and mutually complementary.

Chapter 2 Types of buildings and their requirements

§ 1 Classification of civil buildings

Civil buildings, according to their destination, are divided into residential and public buildings. To apartment houses carry apartment type; hostels; hotels; boarding houses, etc.
   Among the public buildings are intended for all types of social and everyday life of people. Public buildings that serve the daily needs of people include kindergartens, day nurseries, schools, shops, cafes, canteens, consumer services, etc. The public buildings of the episodic visit include theaters and cinemas, museums, large restaurants, stadiums, palaces of culture and sports.
   By the number of floors, civil buildings are distinguished:
   - low-rise (up to 2 floors);
   - medium storey (3-5 floors);
   - Increased number of storeys (6-9 floors);
   - multi-storey (10-25 floors);
   - high-rise (more than 25 floors).
   Buildings are classified according to the main material of the walls: stone, concrete, reinforced concrete, metal, wooden.
   By the method of erection: from small-sized elements; from large-sized elements; monolithic.
   On fire resistance, buildings are divided into five degrees:
   To the first degree belong buildings whose bearing and enclosing structures are made of stone, concrete or w / concrete using sheet and plate incombustible materials.
   In buildings of the 2nd degree it is allowed to use unprotected steel structures of coatings.
   In buildings of III degree, load-bearing and enclosing structures are made of stone, concrete and w / concrete materials with the use of hard-combustible materials.
   The IV degree of fire resistance includes wooden buildings protected from fire and high temperatures (plaster, sheet or plate incombustible materials).
   Building structures of the Yth degree are not required for fire resistance limits and fire spreading limits.
   Buildings are classified by their durability, which is determined by the period of preservation of the operational qualities of the main structural elements. Buildings are divided into three degrees of longevity: I degree-service age of more than 100 years; II - within the limits of 50-100 years; III - less than 20 years.
   Depending on the purpose and significance of the building are divided into four classes of capital. Each class has its own degree of durability, fire resistance, landscaping, quality of finishing and the degree of equipping with engineering and sanitation systems. The first class includes buildings that meet high requirements; to the second - the middle, to the third and fourth - the average, lower and minimum requirements. The buildings of the first class are not limited by number of storeys; the maximum number of storeys of buildings of the second class - 9, the third - 5, the fourth - 2.

§ 2 Requirements for buildings and structural elements

In general, the following requirements are imposed on the structural element of the building:
- strength and stability, i.e. ability to reliably withstand current loads and resist rollover or shear;
   - durability, determined by the service life of the structure without loss of performance, especially with aggressive influences;
   - fire resistance achieved by giving the design the required fire resistance limit and fire spread limit, which is especially important in buildings in which a large number of people can accumulate;
   - architectural expressiveness, i.e. giving the element a favorable appearance, obeying the general artistic design of the building as a whole;
   - functional expediency, achieved by giving the element the necessary insulating qualities and providing heat and moisture, acoustic and lighting comfort;
   - ease of operation, determined by the possibility of access to all responsible places for system cleaning, inspection and maintenance;
   - manufacturability, which makes it possible to carry out construction by highly industrial methods that do not depend on the natural and climatic conditions of construction;
   - economic feasibility, determined by the size of the resulted costs.
   The performance requirements for buildings, the requirements for durability and fire resistance are determined by SNiPs.
   Any building as an artificially created environment has an ethical and aesthetic impact on a person. The organization of the internal space must correspond to the ethical requirements of society. The external appearance of the building, its interiors should be formed according to the laws of architectural composition.
   The received design decisions are displayed in the drawings, which is the final stage of the design.
   The following types of loads are included in the force:
   1. Constant loads (weight of parts of buildings, ground pressure).
   2. Temporary long-term loads (weight of partitions, stationary equipment).
   3. Short-term loads (weight of people, furniture, snow, wind).
   4. Special loads (loads from earthquakes and possible accidents).
   Various combinations of the above-mentioned impacts are possible (they are regulated by the SNiP "Loads and Impacts"). Non-force impacts include:
   1. Effects of moisture on building materials and structures.
   2. Impact of sun radiant energy (solar radiation).
   3. Biological effects (microorganisms, insects).
   4. Chemical effects.

Chapter 3 Volumetric-planning decisions of buildings

The internal volume of the building consists of spatial cells (rooms) for various purposes located in a certain order. Each such room (living room, kitchen, staircase, etc.) differs from the other with area, shape, and sometimes height.
   A volume-planning solution is a system for allocating premises in a building. Spatial cells are called volume-planning elements. In residential buildings, such elements will be: rooms, kitchens, staircases and other premises formed by structural elements of this building (walls, ceilings, etc.).
   Floors - rooms located between the floors.
   Depending on the location of the floors are distinguished: above-ground - with the location of the floor above the level of the ground (pavement), the basement - when the floor is buried more than half the height of the room below ground level; basement (basement) - with a floor penetration (below the ground) less than half the height of the room; mansard - with rooms located inside the attic.
   Thus, the space-planning elements divide the internal space of buildings into separate floors and rooms.
   The volume-planning structure of the building is a system of combining the main and auxiliary premises of selected sizes and shapes into a single integrated composition. On the grounds of location and interrelation of the premises, several spatial planning systems of buildings are distinguished.
Anfilade system provides for a direct transition from one room to another, through the openings within their walls. This system makes it possible to create a building of a very compact and economical structure due to the absence or minimal volume of communication facilities. All the main premises in the building with the enfilade system are walk-through, therefore it is only applicable in exposition buildings - museums, art galleries, exhibition pavilions, etc.
   The system with horizontal communication rooms provides communication between the main rooms through communication lines or corridors. This allows the main premises to be designed non-propelled. The planning system with horizontal communication rooms is widely used in the design of civil buildings for various purposes - dormitories, hotels, schools, hospitals, administrative buildings, etc.
   The sectional system consists in arranging a building from one or several single-character fragments (sections) with repetitive floor plans, and the rooms of all floors of each section are connected by common vertical communications-a ladder or stairs and elevators. The sectional system is the main one in the design of multi-apartment residential buildings of medium and large storeys.
   The ghost system is built on the subordination of a relatively small number of auxiliary rooms to the main hall, which determines the functional purpose of the building as a whole. The most common system in the design of entertainment, sports and shopping buildings - a gym, indoor swimming pool, a cinema, a covered market, etc. A green system is used for buildings with one or several halls.
   Atrium system - with an open or covered courtyard, around which the main rooms are located, connected directly to it through open (galleries) or closed (side corridors) communication rooms. In addition to traditional use in the southern dwelling, it is widely used in the design of low-rise buildings with large halls - covered markets, museums, exhibitions, as well as in school buildings, multi-storey hotels and administrative buildings. Advantages of the system in open courtyards - a close relationship between the necessary in the technological scheme of open and closed spaces.
   A mixed (combined) system, including elements of various systems, is found primarily in multifunctional buildings.
   The development of a spatial planning solution is carried out on the basis of the scheme of the functional processes taking place in the building, while the most convenient connections between the rooms and their minimum volume should be provided.

Chapter 4 The structural structure of buildings

The constructive structure of the building is called a set of interrelated structural elements - foundations, walls, ceilings, roofs, etc., performing various functions in the building.
   The following requirements are imposed on the structural elements of buildings: strength and stability; functional feasibility; durability and fire resistance; architectural expressiveness; ease of operation; manufacturability; economic expediency.
   Foundations - this is part of the buildings, located below the mark of the day surface of the ground. Their purpose is to transfer all loads from the building to the base.
   The main supporting elements are the walls (external, internal), columns, pillars, pilasters. They carry loads from the upstream elements, including from roofs and roof elements.
   Overlaps are horizontal disks that separate buildings from floors and ensure their spatial rigidity.
   Roofs are the fencing elements of buildings. They are designed to protect buildings from snow and rainfall, outdoor humidity, solar radiation, chemical impurities in the air, active and passive wind flow.
Stairs, as a means of vertical communication between floors, must meet the requirements of throughput, fire safety, and also guarantee a low fatigue of people when climbing.
   Partitions are internal vertical fences of individual rooms within buildings. They are divided into inter-apartment, interroom, as well as for sanitary units and kitchens.
   Windows are designed for lighting and insolation, as well as for ventilation and visual communication with the external environment.
   Doors provide communication between individual rooms.

1 - foundations; 2 - blind area; 3 - external walls; 4 - above-basement overlap; 5 - internal wall; 6 - interfloor overlappings; 7 - septum; 8 - attic floor; 9 - attic; 10 - the roof; 11 - doors; 12 - the ladder; 13 - windows; 14 - porch.
Figure 4.1-Cross section of a civil building

Chapter 5 Unified Modular System

§ 1 Unification, typification, standardization

Factory production of structures and parts can become effective only if the number of their standard sizes is minimized, i.e. diversity of species and size of each. At the same time, one should strive to reduce the size of elements not only for one type of building, but also for buildings of different purposes.
   Such a limitation of the number of sizes of building components and bringing them in line with the main parameters of buildings is called unification.
   Due to this relationship, the structures and parts acquire a very important interchangeability property, which makes it possible, without changing the design, to replace, if necessary, some constructions with others. This is of particular importance in the construction of the same projects in areas with different construction bases based on the use of local building materials.
   All elements and space-planning parameters of buildings are unified on the basis of a single modular system (EMC), providing the multiplicity of all dimensions to a certain unit of measurement, called a module.
   The main module (M) is 100 mm. All sizes of buildings that are important for unification must be multiples of M. To increase the degree of unification, the derived modules are added: enlarged and fractional. An enlarged module is the value of the basic module, increased by an integer number of times: 2M, 3M, 6M, 12M, 15M, 30M and 60M. The enlarged module is used to assign the sizes of buildings horizontally and vertically, as well as the sizes of large structures and products.
   To assign relatively small sizes of structural elements and parts, a fractional module is used. It forms part of the main module: 1 / 2M, 1 / 5M, 1 / 10M, 1 / 20M, 1 / 50M, and 1 / 100M.
   On the basis of the unification of parameters and elements, the typification of buildings of a certain purpose is carried out. Typical projects are developed for them.
   Standard in the broadest sense of the word "sample". It is developed for all types of building materials and structures, which are unified on the basis of the module and do not allow deviations in the overall and strength characteristics. This makes it possible to supply various objects from various manufacturing plants of various parts and structures to different objects.

§ 2 Types of sizes in construction

For the precise determination and mutual arrangement of vertical and horizontal elements of the bearing frame of buildings (walls, poles, ceilings) and rooms on drawings and in construction, a system of modular alignment axes is used. Lines of longitudinal axes running along the width of the building (usually parallel lines from the bottom to the top of the plan drawing) are usually designated (marked) in capital letters of the Russian alphabet; lines of transverse axes (perpendicular to the length of the building) by Arabic numerals. The axes are marked in circles with a diameter of 6-12 mm. The centering axes (modular) pass where there should be, according to the project, the capital walls, pillars, other supports with foundations.
   The binding of structural elements to the centering axes and the dimensions of the elements are assigned using the following terms:
- nominal (modular) size - the design distance between the centering axes; for a structural element (for example, beams, slabs) - a conditional dimension, including the corresponding parts of the joints and the standard clearances required when these elements are joined;
   - structural size - the value of the element, the product, which differs from the nominal size, as a rule, by the value of the normative gap between the products;
   - actual size - the actual size of the product. It differs from the constructive by the tolerance value established for this product (for example, for a brick of ± 3-5 mm, depending on its grade); the actual distance between the centering axes of the constructed building.

Chapter 6 Building Systems

The constructive system is a set of interrelated structural elements of multi-storey buildings, ensuring their strength, stability and the required level of performance. In the structural system, the bearing structures that perceive the force effects and perform the functions of protecting the internal space of buildings from non-force impacts are combined. Bearing structures consist of vertical and horizontal elements.
   Vertical load-bearing structures perceive all vertical loads and transmit them to the ground. Horizontal structures (coatings and ceilings) play in buildings the role of horizontal diaphragms of rigidity, perceiving floor-to-floor horizontal loads and impacts (wind, seismic).
   The transfer of horizontal loads to vertical load-bearing structures is solved in two ways: by distributing them either to all vertical structures or to separate special vertical stiffeners (stiffening diaphragms, couplings or stiffeners). An intermediate solution is possible with the distribution in different proportions of the horizontal loads between the stiffeners and the constructions that work primarily on the perception of vertical loads.
   Most widely used are the following structural systems: frame, frameless (wall), shell and barrel.

I - wall; II - wireframe; III - barrel; IV - shell; V - three-block; 1 - supporting structure; 2 - non-load bearing structure; 3 - bearing volumetric block.
Figure 6.1 - The main structural systems of civil buildings

The choice of the type of vertical bearing structures and the nature of the distribution of horizontal loads and the effects between them is one of the main issues in the arrangement of structural systems. It also has an impact on the planning solution, the architectural composition and the economy of the project.
   In addition to the basic generative features of the structural system, which are vertical bearing elements, there are additional classification features within each of the structural systems. They are signs of placing vertical bearing structures in the building and the distance between them. So, for example, depending on the location of load-bearing walls in a frameless building, the cross-wall and longitudinal-wall variants of the structural system are distinguished (Figure 6.2).
   1. Diagram with a cross-arrangement of internal walls with a small step of the transverse walls. It has small dimensions (up to 20 m 2) of constructive-planning cells, which excludes the freedom of planning solutions.
   2. Scheme with alternating dimensions (large and small) of the pitch of the transverse bearing walls and separate longitudinal walls of rigidity. This scheme is usually called a scheme with a mixed step. This scheme to some extent allows to exclude planning shortcomings of the previous scheme.
   3. Scheme with rarely located transverse bearing walls and individual longitudinal walls of stiffness (with a large step of the transverse walls). It allows to reduce the nomenclature of prefabricated products. It also has the advantage of constructing a planning space.
   4. Scheme with longitudinal outer and inner bearing walls and rarely located transverse walls - stiffening diaphragms.

I - cross-wall with a small step; II - cross-wall with a mixed pitch; III - cross-wall with a large step; IV - longitudinal and walled.
Figure 6.2 - Variants of frameless constructive system

Chapter 7 Building systems

The concept - the building system - is a complex characteristic of the structural design of the building on the basis of the material and technology of erecting its bearing structures. There are four groups of structural materials - stone (including brick), concrete, metal and wood and two basic technological methods of erection - traditional and industrial. For example, for brick buildings the technology of manual laying of load-bearing walls is traditional, and for wooden buildings - the use of chopped log walls. The most common is the use of one building system when building a building. Such building systems are called basic. The scheme of their classification is given in Figure 7.1.

Figure 7.1 - Classification of major building systems

The buildings have the following building systems:
   System with load-bearing walls made of bricks and ceramic blocks. It is based on the construction of walls in the technique of manual laying and is used for buildings of various storeys within up to 16 floors.
   Large-block construction system. Used in the construction of buildings up to 16 floors. Installation of large blocks is carried out according to the basic principle of the erection of stone walls - horizontal rows in a solution with a mutual ligation of blocks.
   The panel system. It is used for construction of buildings up to 30 floors in normal conditions and up to 12 floors in seismic conditions. The panels of load-bearing walls are made in height to the floor and extend to 1 to 2 structural and planning steps with a mass of elements up to 8-10 tons.
   Frame-panel system with a bearing reinforced concrete frame and exterior walls made of lightweight concrete panels. It is used for building buildings up to 30 storeys high.
   The volume-block system. It provides for the construction of buildings from large volume-spatial reinforced concrete blocks containing a living room or other part of the building.
   Monolithic and prefabricated monolithic system. It is used for the erection of multi-storey buildings with reinforced concrete walls in inventory metal formwork. It has higher rigidity than panel and brick ones and is therefore suitable for multi-storey construction in seismic regions.

SECTION 1.Civil structural elements

buildings

1.1. Concepts of buildings and structures

Any significant construction of various types and purposes, recognized in administrative order suitable for use for a specific purpose, appropriate land allocation and design documentation, is called a structure or structure. In the variety of buildings (structures), the concept "building" is included.

A building is called a land structure that has an internal space intended for a certain type of human activity.

In practical activities, anything that does not apply to buildings is usually called engineering facilities. They, in general, perform purely technical functions. These include: bridges, tunnels, metro stations, television and radio transmitting masts, cooling towers, chimneys, towers, tanks, monuments, obelisks, etc.

For functional purposes, buildings are divided into:

Civil (residential and public), designed to meet household needs and social activities of people;

Industrial, designed to conduct a variety of production activities;

Agricultural, intended for various branches of agricultural production.

Buildings protect the environment within themselves from the effects of adverse environmental factors (temperature, solar radiation, wind, precipitation) and creates a certain microclimate in the room, corresponding to the type of human activity (Figure 1.1).

1.2. Constructive elements of civil buildings

All structural elements of the building can be divided into:

Fencing, separating the room from the external space, or one from the other;

Bearers, perceiving the load acting in the building;

Combining both these functions.

Each building consists of separate interconnected parts (structural elements) having a specific purpose. The main structural elements of a civil building are:

Foundations;

Fig. 1.1. Scheme of interaction of the environment with the microclimate

premises

Separate supports;

overlapping;

stairs;
partitions;
windows, doors, balconies and loggias.

The axonometric section of the building (Fig. 1.2) shows its main structural elements.

Foundations is an underground structure that perceives the entire load from the building and transmits it to the ground.

Walls - this is the vertical structural elements of the building. Depending on the location in the building, the walls are divided into external and internal. External walls protect the premises from the external environment. Internal walls divide the floor space into separate rooms and are divided into longitudinal and transverse. Depending on the design system

Fig. 1.2. Civil building and its elements:

1 - foundation; 2, - the outer wall; 3 - inner wall; 4 - plinth;

5 - interfloor overlapping; 6 - overlapping attic; 7 - septum; 8 - the roof; 9 - the ladder; 10 - basement floor; 11 - pit; 12 - entrance to the building; 13 - balcony; 14 - dormer windows

buildings and the nature of static work, the outer walls are divided into bearing, self-supporting and non-bearing (hinged), and internal - on the bearing and self-supporting (partitions).

Bearing walls - a structure that perceives the load of its own weight, the weight of the overlying structures on all floors of the building (roofs, roofs) resting on them, wind loads. All these wall loads are transferred to the foundation (Figure 1.3a).

Self-supporting walls are structures that also rely on foundations, but which carry loads only from the weight of all floors of the building and the load from the wind pressure (Figure 1.3a).

Unnecessary (hanging) walls are structures that accept the load of their own weight, wind load only within one storey or

Fig. 1.3 Classification of walls by the nature of static work:

a - bearing and self-supporting; b - hinged; 1 - load-bearing brick;

2 - self-supporting; 3 - panels between floors; 4 - curtain wall panel; 5 - column; 6 - crossbars

their height and transferring them to the supporting elements of the building (racks, columns, poles, bolt, straps, overlapping) (Figure 1.3 b).

Partitions - it's internal self-supporting walls, dividing the space of the floor into separate rooms and resting on the ceilings.

Separate supports - is carrying vertical elements (racks, columns, poles), transferring the load from the ceilings and other elements of the building to the foundation. In this case, the ceilings are supported by beams or crossbars, and the latter in turn rest on columns. Located in the building separate supports, crossbars and ceilings form the spatial frame of the building.

Overlapping These are horizontal fences dividing the inner space of the building into floors and carrying loads, both permanently (from own weight) and temporary (from the weight of people, objects and equipment) and transferring it to horizontal and vertical bearing structures. Depending on the location of the building, the floors are divided into:

Inter-storey - separating adjacent floors;

Attic - overlapping the upper floor and separating it from the attic;

Combined (coverings) - overlapping the top floor and combined with a roof;

Basement - separating the ground floor from the underground or basement.

Roofis a construction that performs a load-bearing and enclosing function that protects the building from rain, wind and overheating from the sun. It consists of a watertight shell - the roof and supporting its supporting elements.

Roofs are attic - having an attic space between the roof and the ceiling of the upper floor, and bescherdachnye (combined), in which the upper ceiling and roof are combined into one structure. In the latter case, the top overlap is called a coating.

Stairs - these are the structures used to communicate between the floors, as well as for evacuation in emergency cases. Stairs are internal and external (Fig.1.2).

Window is a structural element of the building, intended for lighting, insolation and airing the room.

Doors - a mobile enclosure designed to communicate between adjacent horizontally placed rooms (internal doors), as well as external, providing access and exit from the building.

Balcony is an open area with a fence, projecting beyond the plane of the outer wall (Fig.1.4a).

Loggia is an open space adjacent to the outer side of the outer wall and fenced on three sides (except the facade) by walls and having a guard rail along the facade (Figure 1.4b). According to the location relative to the plane of the building wall (Fig. 1.4c), the loggias are subdivided:

Fallen, completely located in the dimensions of the building;

Partially sinking, partially buried inside the building;

Hinged (outriggers), completely protruding beyond the plane of the facade.

Fig. 1.4. General view of the balcony and loggia:

A - balcony; B - loggia; B - types of loggias: B-1 - sinking; B-2 - partially sinking; B-3 - hinged; 1 - bearing reinforced concrete slab; 2 - loggia walls; 3 - fencing of balcony and loggia

Bay window represents a part of the living room, which was removed from the plane of the facade, enclosed by an external wall with window openings. In terms of bay windows can have a rectangular, trapezoidal, triangular shape (Figure 1.5). Eckers can start from the first floor or occupy one or more floors in height.

Fig. 1.5. General view of different types of bay windows:

a - bay window combined with a balcony; b - bay window to the entire height of the building;

c - a triangular bay window on several floors

Visor.Over the entrances to the buildings are arranged visors, which protect the entrance doors and entrance area from rain and snow. The visor is usually a reinforced concrete slab, which, for small flights, is sealed and anchored in the masonry of the wall or supported by supports (Figure 1.6).

Pitches. To illuminate and air the cellars in their outer socle walls, windows are arranged at or below the ground level, and before the windows are wells called pits (Figure 1.2).

Fig. 1.6. Visor over the entrance to the building

Entrances to the basement floors. The entrances are usually arranged in the form of open one-side staircases, located in special pits adjacent to the outer wall of the building and enclosed by a retaining wall (Fig. 1.7a). To protect against atmospheric precipitation, such a pit, most often, covered with a roof or enclosed with an annex that has not only a roof, but also light walls (Figure 1.7b).

Fig.1.7. External entrance to the basement:

a - open; b - with a closed annexe

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State budget educational institution of secondary vocational education in Moscow

MOSCOW BUILDING TECHNICQUE

Home test work

on the discipline "Architecture of buildings"

Student Shramchenko Pavel Yurevich

Moscow 2014

1. Basic elements and structural schemes of civil buildings

The main elements of buildings. With all the variety of buildings for their intended purpose, space-planning and constructive solutions, they all consist of a limited number of interconnected parts or elements, sometimes called architectural-constructive elements.

The main structural elements of civil buildings are: foundations, walls, ceilings, partitions, roof, stairs, windows, doors, balconies.

The foundations are the supporting part through which the load is transferred from the building to the ground. Foundations are exposed to groundwater, often aggressive and variable temperatures. Therefore, for the erection of foundations apply materials that have high strength, water resistance and frost resistance: reinforced concrete, concrete, rubble stone. In mass construction, foundations under the walls of buildings are usually constructed of prefabricated: reinforced concrete pillows and blocks. The foundations are also piled, when the building rests on submerged wooden, concrete or reinforced concrete piles, or ordinary piles with flat soles. Conventional foundations in form are divided into tape, which are laid under the walls, or columnar - under separate columns or columns.

Walls by purpose and location in the building are external and internal. External walls protect the premises from the external environment and protect them from atmospheric influences, while the internal walls separate some rooms from others. Both external and internal walls perceive wind loads on the building, provide sound and heat insulation of the premises.

Walls are carriers, self-supporting and non-bearing. Bearing walls and perceive the load not only from its own mass, but also from other structures (floors, roofs, stairs). Self-supporting walls convey to the foundations only a load of their own weight and wind. On such walls do not rely on ceilings or other structures of the building. Bearing walls must have the necessary strength, stability, and capital. They are built of bricks, artificial and natural stones and blocks, prefabricated concrete and other panels. The latter are used in large-panel buildings. The walls, which only protect the buildings from external space and transmit their own weight within each floor to other load-bearing structures of the building, are called non-load bearing.

The same walls, hung on the vertical frame of the building, it is customary to call hinged.

The upper part of the outer wall, projecting beyond the plane of the wall, is called the cornice. Removal of the cornice, i.e., the distance from the wall to the edge of the ledge, is assigned according to the design. In this case, the need to protect the walls from water draining from the roof and the architectural features of the building are taken into account.

Overlapping combines fencing and bearing functions. They are interstitial, attic, socle. Intermediate floors are divided in a building adjacent to the height of the room. Overlappings above the basement are called socle, and above the top floor - attic. Overlaps are usually made of prefabricated reinforced concrete slabs - decking or panels. In low-rise buildings, the floors are sometimes arranged from wooden beams with rolling boards along cranial bars.

Partitions are enclosing elements that divide the interior space of a building within a single storey into separate rooms. They are erected from gypsum, gypsum-concrete, fibrolite and ceramic hollow slabs and stones, as well as from bricks with subsequent finishing. The partitions rest on the floors and transfer their weight to them.

The roof combines the enclosing and bearing functions and serves to protect the building from atmospheric precipitation and to remove them beyond its limits. It usually consists of rafters, to which the crate of the roofing is affixed. As a covering called a roof, asbestos-cement sheets, ceramic and concrete tiles, roofing tiles, roofing materials, roofing materials, roofing steel are used. In some buildings, coatings are combined, in which the roof and ceiling functions are combined. At the same time the roof is spread over the insulated top floor cover. Such a covering is called bezcherdachnym. It has adequate protection against freezing.

Stairs serve to communicate between floors. They are located in rooms with capital walls in staircases. Part of the ladder between the platforms is called a march. In staircases, in most cases, there are also elevators.

Constructive schemes of buildings. The main load-bearing elements (foundations, walls, separate supports, ceilings and coverings) constitute the supporting frame or the bearing frame of the building. The totality of these elements must ensure the perception of all loads affecting the building, and. transfer them to the base (an array of soil under the foundations of the building), as well as the spatial unchangeability (rigidity) and stability of the building.

According to the structural scheme of the bearing skeleton, the buildings are divided into frameless, frame and incomplete skeleton. In frameless buildings, the main vertical bearing elements are the walls, in the frame - separate supports (columns, pillars), in buildings with incomplete framework - and the walls, and individual supports.

Residential and public buildings are built from piece bricks and stones and from large-sized parts and elements: large-block, large-panel and bulk-block.

In frameless buildings, the bearing walls together with the ceilings form a box, the spatial rigidity of which is provided by the joint operation of walls and ceilings.

Frameless buildings made of bricks and small stones are usually erected by longitudinal carriers. walls external and internal. Cross walls in such buildings are arranged only in staircases in places where smoke and ventilation ducts must pass, and also in the spaces between them, to give greater stability to the longitudinal walls and the building as a whole. In frameless buildings with transverse bearing walls, the longitudinal outer walls are self-supporting, and the ceilings are supported by transverse walls. Prefabricated buildings are also constructed, in which both transverse and longitudinal walls are bearing. In such buildings, floor panels of the size of a room are supported by all four sides on transverse and longitudinal walls.

Frameless large-block houses with walls of concrete and other large blocks have predominantly the same structural scheme with three longitudinal bearing walls as brick houses. This scheme is also used in the construction of public multi-storey buildings. Depending on the width of the building, there may be not one, but two internal longitudinal walls.

Frameless large-panel houses can be: with three longitudinal bearing walls, with transverse bearing walls-partitions, installed with a small step from each other; with transverse bearing walls-partitions, installed with a large step.

In large-panel houses with three longitudinal bearing walls (two external, one internal) external wall panels make three-layered of heavy concrete with a heater or single-layer of lightweight or cellular concrete. Multilayer panels consist of an outer layer of reinforced concrete 50 mm thick; middle layer of thermal insulation from mineral wool boards, foam concrete or other light materials; inner bearing and finishing layer. The total thickness of this panel is 240-360 mm. The thickness of panels made of lightweight concrete depends on their strength, density and thermal conductivity. For internal longitudinal walls in houses of this type use solid reinforced concrete panels in height to the floor and a thickness of 140 to 180 mm. Intermediate floors in this case rely on the outer and inner load-bearing walls. The partitions are installed on the floors; panels of partitions in such houses are self-supporting, from gypsum scaffold or other materials.

In large-panel houses with transverse bearing walls, partitions, all the main elements are bearing: transverse partitions, internal longitudinal and "external walls." The floor panels in these houses have the supports of all four sides, while the outer wall panels, which differ little from the outer panels in the houses with longitudinal bearing walls, are considered self-supporting.The partition walls in such houses are made of heavy concrete.The thickness of the panels is from 140 to 180 mm.Vibro-brick panels are used instead of concrete ones. leu erecting inner longitudinal wall. Panel ceilings in buildings with transverse carrier partitions do 100--140 mm thick at room size. Produce their continuous of heavy concrete.,

In large-panel houses sanitary-engineering units are assembled from ready-made cabins equipped with all appliances. Sanitary cabins are manufactured in prefabricated house-building plants and delivered to construction sites prepared for installation.

As a rule, skeleton structures are built with multi-storey civil administrative buildings. In recent years, began to build and frame multi-storey apartment buildings.

Constructive schemes of frame multi-storey buildings are given in. Bearing frame of such buildings consists of columns and crossbars, performed in the form of beams. Columns and rigidly or hinged fasteners with them form bearing frames that absorb the vertical and horizontal loads of the building. External walls of frame buildings can be performed as self-supporting. In this case, they rely directly on foundations or, on foundation beams, installed with a columnar foundation. Non-usable walls in the form of hinged panels are attached to the outer columns of the frame.

Frame-panel buildings, in contrast to large panels, except for panels of walls and partitions, staircases, balconies and slabs, also have an element of the frame that perceives the forces acting on the building. The frame is formed by columns and leaning on them in the level of overlapping bolts, floorings or floor panels.

The building may have an incomplete frame when the columns are located only along the inner axes, and the crossbars are laid not only between the columns but also between the columns and the outer walls. With a full frame, the panels of the outer walls serve only as a guard, since the frame elements do not rest on them. In this case, the panels of the external walls are hinged.

Volumetric-block buildings are erected from large-sized elements - volume blocks having the greatest degree of factory readiness. The block is a finished part of a building, for example a room. Dimensions volumetric blocks depend on the scheme of cutting the building: on the block-room or on blocks equal to the width of the house. In the second scheme of cutting, two rooms are located in each block. Dimensions volumetric units also depend on the mass, which is limited by the carrying capacity of transport and installation facilities.

Volume-block houses have two basic design schemes; block and block-panel.

In buildings of the block scheme, their ground part is mounted only from the volume blocks, which are installed close to each other. Sometimes between blocks of such houses, small breaks are made for corridors and mines of engineering communications.

In buildings with a block-panel scheme, three-dimensional blocks are installed one on top of another, and overlap panels are laid between them. Volume blocks can also be placed in staggered order.

Volumetric blocks are made of concrete, while for external walls it is possible to use expanded clay and claydite-perlite concrete. According to the technology of production, the blocks are prefabricated and prefabricated-monolithic. Prefabricated volumetric blocks are made from finished flat reinforced concrete panels, which are connected by welding to the calipers. Prefabricated monolithic volume blocks usually have five monolithically connected planes. The sixth (floor or outer) wall is made separately and connected to the monolithic part of the block by welding of the embedded parts.

Single modular system. Dimensions of building structures, products and parts of civil buildings, as well as the division of the buildings themselves into compartments, must be coordinated and mutually linked to ensure the possibility of unification, typification and standardization in the design and manufacture of building structures and products. The set of rules, the order of coordination and designation of the volume-planning and structural elements of buildings, structures and products constitute a single modular system in construction - EMC.

As the main module for EMC, designated by the letter M, a value of 100 mm is assumed, according to which all the main dimensions of the supporting frame (frame) of the building and the nominal dimensions of the structures are assigned.

The variety of objects being constructed with the use of prefabricated parts and structures causes a correspondingly wide variety of parts and structures, respectively. Designing them for each object under construction would require enormous expenditures of engineering work, a large expenditure of materials for the manufacture of tools and devices for the production of prefabricated products, and the irrational use of construction industry enterprises. To avoid this, to reduce the cost of prefabricated parts and structures in the construction, they carried out their unification and typification.

Unification provides for the greatest possible reduction to uniformity, elimination of unjustified, unreasonable individual differences in form, size and other design features of prefabricated parts. In particular, due to unification, most of the reinforced concrete products (foundation blocks, slabs and many others) are equally used for the construction of residential houses, public and other buildings.

Typification provides for the possibility of serial production of a limited number of types of products for construction. Thus, only a limited number of reinforced concrete farms are allowed to be used as standard for the construction of industrial buildings. At the same time, their dimensions (the span length) can be only 18; 24 m.

The highest stage of typification and unification of structures is their standardization, that is, the establishment of unified, generally binding requirements. Only the most common types of products are standardized. Standards for reinforced concrete sleepers, pipes, steps, crosspieces, many types of floor slabs and coverings, ceramsite concrete and other panels, as well as a number of other types of products are currently approved.

In order to reduce the types of prefabricated products for residential and public buildings of mass construction, a single range of parts is built, using a single integrated module of 600 mm (6M) with an additional module (for special cases) 300 mm (3M). In accordance with this, a number of module sizes of 1U2 are adopted for the planning grid of residential buildings; 1.8; 2.4; 3.0; 3.6; 4.2; 4.8; 5.4; 6.0; 6.6 m, and the height of floors from floor to floor is 2.8 m; for northern areas 3 m. For planning decisions of public buildings a number of modular sizes 1,2 are accepted; 2.4; 3.6; 4.8; 6.0; 7.2; 9.0; 12.0; 15.0; 18.0; 24,0 m at heights of floors 3,3; 3.6; 4.2; 4.8; 6.0 m.

constructive building

2. Ladders, their main elements and constructive solutions

Stairs are structural elements designed to organize communication between the floors of a building. As a rule, in accordance with the requirements of fire safety, staircases are enclosed in special rooms, walled - staircases. Structural solutions of stairs are chosen based on the purpose of the building, the intensity of the human flow, the magnitude of the loads on the flight of stairs, etc. Accordingly, there are ladders:

· Reinforced concrete (monolithic or prefabricated from large-sized and small-sized elements)

· Metal

· Wooden

Stairs are divided according to purpose

· The main staircases, which serve for daily use and are located in staircases;

· Auxiliary stairs - for official use;

· Emergency external - for quick evacuation;

Fire escape stairs;

Stairs include marches and playgrounds.

According to the constructive solution, the march consists of supporting inclined beams (or slabs), steps and fencing.

Support beams are called kosoura, when the steps rest on top of them

Bowstring, when the steps are located on the side of them.

Bearing elements of the marches rest on the bearing elements of the platforms - the beam beams.

Grounds are storeyed, located on the floors and intermediate levels.

Based on the number of marches in the span of the height of the floor, the stairs are divided

· Single-mast

· Two-marsh

· Three-march

Most often used two-flight stairs - as the most compact in terms of and economical. If the ladder is three-march, then between its flights often have elevator shafts.

To the stairs, a number of requirements are made: it is safety and convenient walking around them. The ladder on the constructive solution must meet the requirements of rigidity and strength.

Designers are guided by the norms of SNiP and take into account some rules:

· The incline of the staircase should be accepted: the main stairs 1: 2 - 1: 1.75; auxiliary stairs - 1: 1,25;

· The number of steps in the staircase should not exceed 16 pcs. and not less than 3;

· The steps of the march must be of the same size.

· Fencing of marches and platforms is carried out by railings to a height of 0.85 m;

· Passage under marches, platforms is carried out by a height of at least 2 meters;

· Natural light should be provided on staircases;

· The stairs must be fireproof;

· Staircases must have access to the attic space. It is possible to reach the attic on a vertical metal staircase with an arranged platform in front of the attic door. In buildings and structures up to 5 floors inclusive - through the hatch in the slab of the size 0,6х0,8 m;

· The width of the march that determines the throughput of the ladder is determined by the calculation, but not less than the normative values. It depends on the number of floors of the building, on its purpose, on the number of people on the most crowded floor; The ladder area should not be wider than the width of the ladder march

· For main stairs not less than 1.2 m;

· The area before the entrance to the elevator is not less than 1.6 m;

· Sites of hospital buildings not less than 1.9 m;

3. Carry out the nodes for fixing the wall panels to the carcass columns

Knots of fastening of wall panels to columns

a - with the support on the table and with the help of rods, b - with the interlocking corners; I - variant of fastening (view from the column side); 1 - a column, 2 - a column inlay, 3 - a support table, 4 - a wall panel, 5 - an embedded part of the panel, 6 - a rod, 7 - a coupling from corners.

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