Walls protect internal premises from atmospheric influences and create necessary sanitary and hygienic conditions in them, ensure the strength and stability of the building, perceive loads from interstitial floors and roofs, staircases and platforms and transfer them to the foundations. In the walls of commercial buildings, apart from windows and doors, showcases are arranged. The external walls create the external architectural appearance of the building, and the internal walls and partitions are a planning structure. The walls are interconnected with almost all the structural elements of the building and largely determine the modular coordination of the dimensions of the building and its individual elements.
The external walls are divided into structural components by supporting, self-supporting and hinged. Bearing walls protect the building and perceive loads from roofs and roofs and transfer them to the foundation. They combine the functions of heat protection and ensure the strength of the building. Self-supporting walls protect the building, perceive the load of its own weight and transfer pressure to the foundation. Self-supporting walls do not carry loads from overlappings, and horizontal wind loading transfer on designs of a skeleton of a building. This construction of the walls is much more efficient in the consumption of materials and labor intensity of the structure. Bearing and self-supporting walls are made of bricks, lightweight concrete, ceramic blocks or from local natural materials - limestone, shell rock, tuff. Curtain walls only protect the building. They are made in the form of panels made of lightweight effective materials and hung on the frame of the building. This is the most industrial and economical type of exterior wall.
The outer wall of the building starts from the top of the basement with a basement wall or a socle. On the basement part of the wall, which is below the ground level, in addition to the vertical pressure from the mass of the wall, horizontal pressure is applied to the ground, as well as groundwater, if their level is above the basement floor.
Part of the socle is under the ground, and a part - above the ground. On the ground part of the socle, the atmospheric moisture (rain, snow) intensively acts, and the moisture contained in the ground is on the underground part. Therefore, the base part of the wall must be made of strong durable material and reliably isolated from the overlying wall. Often the basement of commercial buildings is faced with granite or marble. Despite the high cost of these materials, their resistance to atmospheric influences makes it possible to obtain a significant economic effect in the process of operation, since annual repairs are not required.
The outer surface of the outer wall consists of the deaf and proximal parts (Figure 1). For the device of windows, doors, shop windows, stained-glass windows and gates in the wall leave openings. In low-rise buildings to drain rainwater, the roof is arranged with a slope to the outer walls, and part of the wall adjacent to the roof is made with a cornice so that water does not flow over the wall. In multi-storey buildings, water is removed from the roof through pipes that run inside the building. Therefore, the roof slope is directed inwards, and the roof is protected with a parapet. To protect the wall from rain and snow, the parapet from above is covered with a parapet stone of dense concrete or metal roofing sheets.
Under the influence of the outdoor temperature in summer, the wall material increases in volume, and in winter it decreases. These seasonal changes, which are inconspicuous for the eye, exert considerable influence on the walls and they are transferred to the building's structures. To ensure that temperature deformations do not cause damage to the strength of structures, deformation thermal seams are arranged along the entire length of the wall. The distance between the seams should not exceed the maximum value determined by the norms for different types of clutches and values of external design temperatures. The walls of parts of the building that differ sharply in height or load (for example, in an annex of a two-story store to a 12-storey residential building) are cut to the base of the foundation by a sedimentary deformation seam. Sedimentary seam is also necessary if the base of the foundation of the building is a ground, significantly different in magnitude of the precipitation, for example, when a part of the building is erected on loose soils, and some - on a natural undisturbed base. Sedimentary seams allow adjacent parts of the walls to move vertically, to settle independently.
Fig. 1. Elements of the outer wall: 1 - parapet; 2 - cornice; 3 - jumper; 4 - partition; 5 - socle; 6 - waterproofing
Fig. 2. Scheme of location and design of expansion joints: 1 - temperature seam; 2 - sedimentary suture; 3 - wall; 4 - foundation; 5 - heater; 6 - roll insulation; 7 - compensator
Fig. 3. Knots of fastening of panels of external walls from easy concrete: 1 - window block; 2 - console of the column, perceiving the weight of the panel; 3 - panel of the outer wall; 4 - connecting strip, perceiving wind load; 5 - column; 6 - overlapping panel; 7 - the embedded part in the panel fastening column
The walls of the basement part of commercial buildings are made, as a rule, from solid prefabricated concrete blocks, with dry soils - from hollow ones. When the height of the basement is more than 3 m, the walls of prefabricated concrete blocks are reinforced with ribs of monolithic reinforced concrete. For the construction of walls of cellars of frame-panel buildings of trade and public catering, prefabricated reinforced concrete panels with a thickness of 0.25 and 0.30 m are used.
The ground part of the bearing and self-supporting brick walls of trade and public catering buildings is made of ceramic bricks in heavy or light solutions. The strength of the masonry depends on the strength of the solution, which gradually reaches the required value. The freshly prepared solution has a low strength during the first days. The strength of the clutch is provided by the system of dressing stones. The most common system of dressing is spoon laying, in which the internal vertical seams are tied in five rows. The row, laid out of bricks, located across the wall, called tychkovym, along the wall - spoonful. In the spoon laying allowed to arrange inside the brick wall emptiness, which reduces the consumption of the solution, increases the thermal resistance and promotes faster drying of the masonry. To increase the thermal resistance of the wall masonry, effective products are used: porous and hollow bricks, ceramic hollow stones, solid and hollow blocks of lightweight concrete. The inner walls, as a rule, are laid out of solid brick.
Silicate bricks for laying internal walls are used only if there are no chimneys in them and in rooms where the humidity does not exceed 60%. The thickness of the brick walls is assigned to a multiple of the horizontal dimensions of the brick and mortar joint: 120 mm - masonry per half brick, 250 mm - one brick, 380 mm - one and a half bricks, 510 mm - two bricks, etc.
The hanging walls are constructed from single- or three-layer panels, which are delivered to the construction site in full factory readiness. Full-frame frame-panel buildings for trade and public catering are built using wall single-layer panels (Figure 3). They are made of light and cellular concrete. Lightweight concrete panels are made of expanded-clay concrete, shungestite concrete, slag-pumice concrete with a density of 900 ... 1100 kg / m3. The cellular aerated concrete panels are made of aerated concrete, gas silicate, foam concrete, foam silicate with a density of 500 ... 700 kg / cm3. The thickness of the wall panels is selected on the basis of heat engineering calculation, taking into account the external and internal temperature of the air, the material of the wall panels, the humidity of the room and the heating costs of the building. The obtained data are compared with the thicknesses of typical panels and take the nearest larger of the unified thicknesses. From the correct thickness of the panel wall depends on the temperature and humidity conditions of the building, the cost of heating, ventilation, electricity.
In order to collect completely the wall of a commercial building or a dining room, a set of interconnected panels is needed. A set of hinged panels (product range) consists of ground, basement, basement panels, vertical wall panels, panels for forming the inner and outer corners of the building, as well as prefabricated elements for the device of cornices and parapets. Panels have a length equal to the step of the columns of the frame of the building - 3; 6 and 9 m, and a height multiple of 30 mm (ЗМ) -0.6; 0.9; 1.2; 1.5; 1,8 and 2,1 m. Such a cutting of the wall is called horizontal strip or striped multi-row. The size of the piers corresponds to the height of the standard windows of 1.8; 2.1; 2.4; 2.7 m.
Attach the hinged panels to the frame elements with the help of metal fittings for welding. There are two types of joints - a reference, perceiving the weight of the wall, and flexible, calculated only for horizontal wind pressure.
According to the constructive scheme, the nomenclature of typical panels provides for two types of walls - self-supporting and hinged. Self-supporting panel walls transfer their weight to the foundations. To the frame they are fastened with flexible connections that perceive horizontal forces from wind loads. Apply self-supporting panel walls in buildings up to four floors. The hinged panel walls are supported by columns of the frame or on metal tables welded to the columns. Above the panel fasten to the column with flexible connections, designed for wind loads. Such fastening requires more metal and labor to build a building, but the curtain walls can be used in buildings of any number of storeys and with any type of glazing (for example, over a solid ribbon showcase).
The nomenclature of panels provides products of four thicknesses: 0,25; 0.30; 0,35 and 0,40 m. Such a set allows, depending on the temperature and humidity conditions of the terrain and the operational requirements of the commercial building, to choose the required wall thickness, taking into account the material used in the area for making panels. The number of joints in the external panel walls is significantly reduced when the panels are enlarged to the height of the building's floor. Such walls from panels "to the floor" are called walls of floor or single-row cutting. Enlarged panels of a one-story cut are delivered to a construction site with factory-installed window boxes, which reduces the cost of construction and installation work and improves the quality of the fence. The joints between the wall panels are filled with a solution and special sealants, they are smeared with mastics outside (Figure 17). The most difficult and responsible elements are the joints between the panels. Joints should be convenient for installation and meet the requirements of heat protection, water, airtightness and strength. It is known from practice that leakage, freezing and increased air permeability of panel walls, as a rule, is a consequence of joint defects: incomplete filling with mortar, poor setting of sealing gaskets or their absence, broadening of joint dimensions due to inaccurate panel installation during assembly, chips and fractures of their faces , as well as exceeding the dimensional tolerances in the manufacture of panels. From the effects of temperatures, the joints narrow in the summer and expand in winter. They are also deformed from the uneven settling of the foundations, from the asymmetry of the loads transferred to the walls during deformation of the frame. Therefore, to seal the joints of panels, elastic materials are used.
For fixing window and doorways in the panel, they put antiseptized wooden plugs. The metal frame of the storefronts is attached to the panels using metal fittings.
In the construction of trade and public catering buildings, in addition to single-layer panels of light and cellular concrete, three-layer panels of two dense and durable outer layers and an effective insulation between them are used.
Fig. 4. Joints of external panels
The outer layers of the three-layer panels are made of heavy concrete, expanded clay concrete or other types of concrete on porous aggregates of sufficient strength. As a heater apply plates from mineral wool, expanded polystyrene and other effective heaters. Outer strong layers are joined together by reinforced concrete bridges or by means of metal so-called "flexible" connections. Nomenclature of panels corresponds to similar products of single-layer construction.
For fences of commercial buildings, light three-layer hinged panels of vertical strip cutting from effective materials are also used. The construction of the three-layer wall panels is a wooden or metal frame covered with asbestos-cement, and on the inside with aluminum or plastic sheets, wood-shaving or wood-fiber plates. Heat the panels with packages of mineral wool, polystyrene or other light insulation that is glued to the inside surface of the sheets. A stronger panel is obtained, in which the heater is injected under pressure in the form of a plastic mass, forming a single three-layer structure. The wooden or metal frame gives the strength of the composite panel structure. Three-layer panels make a thickness of 0,14 ... 0,16 m and in height equal to the floor of the building. They are distinguished by high heat-shielding properties. Hang them with bolted joints on the slabs. Window boxes and binders are inserted into the panel during manufacture, so after mounting the panels the wall is completely ready.
Three-layer panels are effective structures. So, in the climatic conditions of Moscow, the trading building is protected by a brick wall with a thickness of 0.51 m (mass I m2 = 900 kg), a single-layer hanging claydite-concrete panel wall 0.30 m thick (weight 1 m2 = 270 kg) or a three-layer hanging panel wall 0, 14 m (weight 1 m2 = 70 kg). However, the relatively high cost and inadequate production of materials necessary for the production of efficient three-layer panels limits their use. In addition, many types of effective insulation are easily combustible and toxic. Therefore, the use of light three-layer panels in the buildings of trade and public catering must be necessarily coordinated with the sanitary and fire supervision authorities.
Partitions are internal curtain walls, separating the interior spaces from each other. In addition, they must create the necessary sound insulation of the premises. Partitions should be strong, durable, meet the technological, hygienic and aesthetic requirements for the interior.
According to the design and function, the partitions are divided into stationary and collapsible.
Fixed partitions are divided into trading rooms, warehouse, working and technical premises of the building. They are made of industrial gypsum-concrete panels or bricks. Industrial partitions are manufactured at the plant on gypsum-concrete rolling mills in a wooden harness. Rolling partitions with the help of metal brackets are fixed by dowels to the reinforced concrete elements of the frame. Brick and gipsobetonnye partitions are plastered from two sides or finish with sheets of dry plaster. Partitions of rooms that require high moisture resistance are made of bricks, and then the surface is tiled or plastered.
In the buildings of trade and public catering widely used partitions of glass blocks and profile glass. They are hygienic, they are not afraid of moisture, they are easy to clean and pass natural light well into the rooms. The glass blocks are laid on the cement mortar, the profile glass is installed on the elastic gaskets. The lack of partitions from glass blocks is difficult to replace damaged glass elements.
Collapsible partitions are constructively performed with the calculation of their rearrangement to a new location. This does not break the normal operation of the store. Installation and dismantling take an insignificant time, require minimal labor, are hygienic. Such partitions are three-layer panels, consisting of internal insulating and external facing layers. For facing apply wood-fiber and particle board (thickness 0,3 ... 0,5 cm), as well as paper-laminated plastic, synthetic fabrics, polychloride films and waterproof plywood. In department stores, partitions are provided with mortise parts or holes for fixing shelves, boxes, stands. Panels of partitions are fastened to each other and to the building's structures with bolts and screws, in addition, metal profiles and jack bolts are used.
——————————————————-
Walls in buildings are built to solve a number of problems, the main of which are: - protection of premises from atmospheric influences (in particular, from heat loss, noise penetration); - transfer of loads from the roof and interfloor overlapping to the foundation; - protective functions (in special constructions, IP, storages).
Based on the destination, the following requirements are imposed on the walls: - sufficient strength and stability under the action of vertical and horizontal loads; - durability and fire resistance in accordance with the building's capital class; - high quality of heat protection and soundproofing properties.
For military buildings and structures, mainly three types of walls are used: from small-sized elements, from large blocks and panel ones (Figure 5).
Depending on the participation in the transfer of loads, walls can be: - carriers (capital), which perceive loads from interstrate and attic floors and transfer them to the foundation; - self-supporting, which do not carry loads from other structures, and the load from their own mass is transferred directly to the foundation; - non-load bearing, or hinged, which carry a load of their own weight only within one floor and transfer it to the frame.
Fig. 5. Types of walls: a - from small-sized elements; b - from large blocks; в - from panels
Walls of small-sized elements, and especially brick, including lightweight brick (Figure 6), the most common kind of walls. Scope - bearing walls of multi-storey buildings of five or more floors (5-9); in buildings with rooms, humidity of air in which more than 75%.
Large blocks are used mainly for assembling longitudinal load-bearing walls with a height of up to 5 floors, erected with the help of cranes with a lifting capacity of 3 tons. The limitation of the number of storeys is due to the fact that light porous aggregates are used in the blocks (the strength of the stone does not allow higher walls).
Panels are used to form all types of walls of buildings. The panel differs from the block not only in its dimensions, but also in shape. From the blocks you can get a wall of various types, and the panel is a finished part - a fragment of a certain wall. The third difference in the structure of the element thickness, as the blocks are uniform, and the panel has reinforcement. The main advantage of the panels is in a sharp reduction in the labor intensity of construction, which is observed with an increase in the size of the mounting element.
The main elements of the walls, depending on their purpose, have their names.
Fig. 6. Lightweight brick walls: 1 - lightweight concrete; 2- thermowell; 3 - air layer; 4-plate insulation; 5 - beacon
The lower part of the outer wall, which rises directly above the ground, is called the socle (Figure 7).
The upper face of the cap, protruding from the plane, is called the edge, it must be especially waterproof. The base part of the wall is plastered or made of strong durable materials - reinforced concrete panels, socle beams, blocks, well-burnt brick, natural stone.
Horizontal profiled protrusions on the walls are called girdles, cornices. The cornice, located on top of the wall, is called the crown. Cornices remove rainwater from the walls, protect them from moisture. Sometimes the walls of the building are removed above the crowning cornice, forming a parapet.
Vertical profiled projections on the walls are called pilasters or razrespovkami.
External walls have window and door openings. Part of the wall, located in one floor between the windows, is called a partition (distinguish between the partitions and corner piers). The lateral and upper edges of the window and door openings form external and internal slopes. The bottom of the window opening inside the building is made in the form of a window sill, and outside - a window sink. The window sill and the window sill should have a slope for draining water from the walls and at the bottom of the dropper.
Fig. 7. External wall of the residential building: 1 basement; 2 - waterproofing; 3 - blind area; 4 - basement overlap; 5 - window sink; b - outside window escarpment; 7 - internal window escarpment; 8 - floor covering; 9 - attic floor; 10- the roof; 11 - attic; 12 - the basement wall; 13 - foundation
Walls and partitions
The city apartment can be mounted only gipsokartonnyh partitions. If the openings are covered with bricks, this will be considered an internal wall, the installation of which requires permission from the designer of the building and many other instances.
The thickness of the plasterboard partition depends on the purpose of the partition. If it is installed as a decor, then its thickness depends on the designer's intention. Simply put, it can be any, the one that is optimal for a particular style of interior.
If the partition is designed to fulfill the role of the inner wall, its thickness is selected, based on the need for laying heat and sound insulation. Therefore, it depends on the thickness of the material, which will be laid inside the framework of the metal profile. Most often as a heat and sound insulator use a foam thickness of 3.5 or 10 cm.
If a bookmark of any material in the gap between the sheets of drywall is not provided, it is easiest to make a partition corresponding to the width of the metal profile. In this case, it will be 67 mm, since in the structure of such structures the ceiling profile PP 60/27 is traditionally used. The frame can be built and in two lines, then the thickness of the partition is selected for reasons of space saving. That is, in small rooms it should be smaller.
If the partition of gypsum board should be able to withstand a significant load (for example, it is planned to install hinged cabinets), then the design will require reinforcement. In this case, the thickness of the partition should be at least 10 cm, and reinforced frames and tavers should be built into the frame. As vertical racks it is recommended to use not metal profiles, but wooden bars with a cross section of 3/4 cm, 4/5 or 5/5 cm.
The basis of the wooden partition is a frame with different filling. Sheathing can also be different: plywood, OSB, shields, boards. In calculating the acceptable thickness of such structures, their weight should be taken into account. On average, it is 85-130 kg per 1 m2. If the lower ceiling is capable of withstanding such a load, it is possible to mount a partition of any acceptable thickness, but not more than 15 cm. The wood is a material that is highly flammable, and electrical wiring is often carried out inside the partitions. The large thickness of the structure can make it impossible to quickly stop the fire.
The thickness of the brick wall depends on the method of laying. Partitions can be made "in brick" or "floor-brick." Considering the dimensions of this building stone, the thickness of the structures will be 12-6.5 cm. In the device of such a wall it is necessary to take into account that its weight will be 200-270 kg per 1 m2. Therefore, it is necessary to make appropriate calculations to find out whether the overlap can withstand such a load.
In recent years, many homeowners use drywall to. Before creating a model, you need to carefully consider all the elements of the interior, their location, color, and the material dimensions used. This will determine the thickness of the partition from gypsum board, its skillful application will give an opportunity to get additional space in the end part. The constructions are quickly assembled and have excellent soundproofing properties.
Circumstances influencing the choice of frame and skin
- First of all, the gypsum board must be resistant to horizontal loads. This is especially important in rooms with large cross-country and when combined with a stretch ceiling.
- A thicker partition contains a sufficient layer of soundproof material placed inside.
- The wall should be quite strong, especially in children's rooms.
- Inside the structure are various communications, this directly depends on the thickness of the partition.
Types of partitions with a frame
Similar representatives are installations using the profile - metal or wooden, lined with plasterboard sheets. They can be filled with special material to make the model. For this, GCR of different quality is used:
- conventional;
- waterproof;
- fireproof.
The most popular plasterboard is 1.2 cm thick. Following the installation there is a finishing finish in any chosen way: painting, wallpaper, tiles, tiling and more.
Partition of moisture-resistant plasterboard Based on the classification of the German company Knauf, which produces high-quality materials, we can distinguish the following types of partitions:
- With 111 - weight 1m³ 28 kg, height up to 8 m - single-frame model with steel profile and moisture-resistant plasterboard in one layer. It can have a thickness of 7.5 cm to 15 cm. It is filled with mineral wool, it is used as a fencing inside the room, where there is low sound insulation and fire resistance. The minimum thickness of the partition is determined by the width of the profile and the GCR.
- C 112 has a mass of 1m³ to 53 kg, a height of up to 9 m. The frame is made of metal profile in one layer, the plasterboard sheet is double-layered and filled with mineral wool. Can add to the thickness of another 2.5 cm. The characteristics of sound insulation are higher, the fire resistance is significant. Used in the process of redevelopment and in capital construction;
- C 113 can have a height of up to 9.5 m and a mass of 1 m³ to 78 kg. It is possible to form a thickness of up to 17.5 cm. A steel frame covered with waterproof gypsum plasterboard in 3 layers and filled with mineral wool, which preserves heat. It has excellent sound insulation;
- With 115.1 has a height of up to 6, 5 m, weight 1 m³ to 57 kg. Equipped with a double metal frame and two layers of GCR. Fire-resistant, has excellent soundproof characteristics. The thickness of the partition is determined by the width of the profile. It is used during repair work and in newly constructed premises;
- With 115.2 has a height of up to 9 m, weight of 1 m³ to 69 kg. Has a two-layer frame and plasterboard plastering in half. The frame is divided by a layer, in this connection the strength of the partition increases. Inside it is filled with mineral wool, delays the noise, keeps the heat well. Has a thickness of up to 20 cm;
- C 116 can have a height of up to 6, 5 m and a mass of 1 m³ to 61 kg, a thickness of 22 -25 cm. Double skeletons and GKL, in the partition can be placed communication items, wiring. Excellent fire resistance and soundproofing;
- With 118 has a height of up to 9 m, weight 1 m³ 96 kg. The frame is single, the GKL liner is three-layer, between the sheets are inserted galvanized plates of 0.5 mm. The structure is very durable, it can protect against penetration into the dwelling;
- With 121 is the height up to 3.1 m, the weight of 1 m³ is 32 kg. Here the skeleton is wooden with humidity 12%, sheathed in one layer with plasterboard. The thickness of the partition is determined by the width of the beams and the GCR, and can be 8.5 cm;
- C 122 has a height of up to 3.1 m and a mass of 1 m³ to 57 kg. It has two layers of plasterboard, placed on a wooden frame. Inside the mineral fiber is added, which provides high sound insulation and heat preservation. The thickness of the partition reaches up to 10 cm.
In practice, a thickness of 12.6 cm is optimal, it is better to adhere to it. But here the fact is important, what will be the load on the walls. It arises from the designers of shelves, niches, stands and other objects located on them according to the idea.
- at a load of 45-55 kg per 1 sq. km. m material is better to take a thickness of 1.6 cm;
- 65-70 kg will withstand sheets with a thickness of 1.9 cm;
- more than 70 kg will need a double skin and reinforcement frame with the installation of additional racks.