The ancient roots of Quetzalcoatl.
TO Etzalcoatl - or as his name is also pronounced, Quetzalcoatl - the Feathered Serpent - a fabulous hybrid of a bird of paradise (quetzal) and a snake (coatl), a symbol of the combination of age-old wisdom with beauty and luminosity.
ABOUT n was not only an Aztec god. All Indian gods lived happily in the minds of the peoples of the ancient civilizations of the Mexican land for almost three millennia, and only in the last two centuries before the invasion of the Europeans (Spaniards) were they attributed to the Aztecs. Long before the Aztec, there was another civilization - the Olmec. Scientists only recently learned about the existence of the Olmec civilization. It existed for about a thousand years: its traces ended in the 1st century BC, when, for example, such a center of Mexican civilization as Teotihuacan was just gaining strength. If you look closely, in the Olmec glyph drawings you can see the first images of a jaguar and a snake opposed to each other - symbols of the future “world” confrontation between the Indian gods Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl. As the main deity, the Olmecs obviously considered the jaguar man - a werewolf, embodying the power and ruthlessness of the forces of the earth and the night. Perhaps it was they who created Quetzalcoatl in their imagination as a contrast to the jaguar man.
How Quetzalcoatl became only an Aztec god.
TO When the first pyramids appeared, the pantheon of Indian gods was almost completely “formed,” and Quetzalcoatl occupied not the last, but one might say, one of the leading places in it. Among all the pyramids, many are dedicated to Quetzalcoatl - he, the Indians believed, invented a calendar for them, and he, once turning into an ant, stole a grain of maize from the underground storerooms and gave it to the people.
IN All civilizations have their beginning and end. Most often, civilizations were conquered by other peoples, less enlightened, but surprisingly capable of assimilation. Just at that time, tribes of nomadic hunters were approaching the weakened cities that had lost their former power. They were called "chichimecs" ("people of dog origin"). Some of these tribes, greatly amazed by the greatness and former power of the culture they encountered, tried to assimilate its achievements. The Toltecs also belonged to those peoples. However, their civilization did not last long. And at the beginning of the second millennium, the Toltec cities fell into decay. There is a possibility that they, too, could not resist the onslaught of the new “Chichimeks” - one way or another, but by the time the Aztecs arrived, the Toltecs themselves had already become a legend.
B Having become ordinary “Chichimecas,” the Aztecs hired themselves into the service of the Coluas, the descendants of the Toltecs, and adopted the classical Indian pantheon as their own, and then they themselves gradually began further myth-making, which followed the canonical channel. According to the Aztecs, the world was ruled by four Tezcatlipocas in accordance with the four cardinal directions. Each Tezcatlipoca also had its own color. The main one - Black Tezcatlipoca - controlled the birth and death of people, knew everything about everyone and inspired sacred horror in the Aztecs. He was the god of the starry sky and the night wind, and his earthly incarnation was a jaguar. He was opposed by White Tezcatlipoca - the same Quetzalcoatl, the Feathered Serpent, the god of goodness and light, protector and benefactor of people. Red Tezcatlipoca was the god of Spring, and Blue Tezcatlipoca was none other than the sinister Huitzilopochtli, the warrior god of the Sun, whose orders the Aztecs carried out unquestioningly. Having mastered and embellished the Indian gods with their myths, the Aztecs began to be greatly burdened by their ancestry. Subsequently, with the help of archaeological fraud (the Aztecs diligently excavated Toltec cities and collected art objects found there), they managed to convince everyone around them, and, above all, themselves, that they were direct descendants of the builders of the ancient pyramids.
Teotihuacan - a step between the Olmec and Aztec civilizations?
A The Tseks believed that man lived in five eras. After the light of the Fourth Sun disappeared from the heavens, the penultimate era ended. The gods gathered here in Teotihuacan and began to argue about who should be the fifth Sun. As a result of this, two gods self-immolated. The first god, Tecusiztecatl, was cowardly and arrogant, he jumped into the ashes, as a result of which he became the Moon. Another god, Nanauatzin, burned out immediately and became the Sun.
Z Then the Toltecs came and built their capital Tula, one of whose rulers was Topiltzin Se Acatl Quetzalcoatl. He was very peaceful. He covered his ears when people approached him about military matters. The Toltec god taught people to use fire for cooking. He built houses and taught men and women to live as husband and wife. The Feathered Serpent created laws, opened medicine and corn to people, getting it from the Mountain of Provision. He gave a calendar according to which the exact date of the end of the Fifth Sun was established, December 23, 2012. And yet, the end of the age of Quetzalcoatl was laid by Tezcatlipoca, according to one version he was the high priest, according to another - a god. According to legend, his henchmen gave Quetzalcoatl a mirror so that he could look at his decrepit body. The sadness that gripped him was used by sorcerers who offered him a cure for old age. Quetzalcoatl was given pulque to drink, after which he entered into a relationship with his sister, thereby violating all the principles that he himself instilled in the Toltecs. Tezcatlipoca demanded the sacrifice of people, which the warlike Toltecs and then the Aztecs really liked. According to their ideas, profuse hemorrhages on the altar of the gods helped delay the end of the Fifth Sun. They believed that the gods and people entered into an unspoken agreement on mutual support - the gods gave life to people, people made sacrifices to the gods, feeding them with energy, which appeared to the Indians in the form of gas. It was believed that it could be obtained from the head, heart and liver.
WITH The largest mass sacrifices began already under the Aztecs. Beheading, burning, throwing from great heights, strangulation, and killing with arrows were practiced. The Aztecs performed large sacrifices of captives and slaves monthly in the center of their capital, Tenochtitlan, on Mount Serpent. Two deities were worshiped here: Tlaloc, the god of Rain, and Huitzilopochtli, the god of war. But they never forgot the legend of Quetzalcoatl, who, having sailed on a raft of snakes in 999 to Yucatan, promised to return in the year "Se Acatl", the year of the reed rod, which corresponded to 1519. And when the Spaniards appeared (Cortez sailed to the continent in 1519), they without hesitation mistook him for Quetzalcoatl.
Then everyone knows what happened...
article by Brent Gardner "The Fathers of Quetzalcoatl". Materials from the magazine are used on this page
According to the Chronicles of Cuautitlan, an anonymous source from the time of the Spanish conquest written in Latin in the Nahua language, Se Acatl Topiltzin devoted himself to the service of Quetzalcoatl from the age of nine.. Then he became the high priest of this god and, with the support of the nationalities conquered by the Toltec state and the Toltec opposition, the ruler of Tollan. Quetzalcoatl proposed a program of transformation to the Toltec society, weakened by constant military conflicts, based on the principles of “Toltecoyotl” (“Toltec spirit”) - an ethical and political doctrine that proposed the creation of a single culture based on the combination of the traditions of the Toltecs and the peoples they conquered, as well as civilizational predecessors, first Teotihuacan's turn. Toltecoyotl called for work, religious tolerance, non-discrimination on ethnic grounds, personal salvation through self-improvement, etc. Quetzalcoatl also carried out military reform, replacing old commanders with his own nominees, in order to secure his rule for socio-political and religious changes.
Quetzalcoatl's relatively peaceful reign was marked by economic growth. The capital of the state, Tula, grew into a prosperous city with a population of more than 40,000 people and was larger in size than any Western European capital of the 14th century. A symbol of the transformation was a new temple in Tula, dedicated to the “Morning Lady” (planet Venus), who was considered the embodiment of the “Feathered Serpent”. The temple consisted of four rooms located at the cardinal points. The western one was decorated with turquoise mosaics, the eastern one - with gold plates, the southern one - with seashells, and the northern one - with jasper and red stones. By analogy with it, another temple of the god Quetzalcoatl was decorated with multi-colored feathers: blue–
western compartment, yellow - eastern, white - southern, red - northern.
The progressive transformations of Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl met desperate resistance from conservative priests of traditional cults. The priests of Titlaucan even led a conspiracy against him.
Se Acatl Naxchitl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl ruled for 20 years. At the age of 52, he left Tula forever, accompanied by several thousand of his followers. According to Bartolomé de Las Casas, in 968-987. he and his followers landed on the Yucatan Peninsula and by 1027 conquered the Mayan empire that still existed there, taking the name Kukulcan. Twenty Toltec leaders obeyed him. Diego de Landa describes the leader of the conquerors as a man “good-natured, without wife or children, revered as a god after his exodus from Mexico.” However, according to Mayan evidence, Kukulcan was most likely not Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl, but one of his immediate successors who took over his title.
In the Temple of War at Chichen Itza, fragments of frescoes were discovered depicting a battle between red-skinned warriors and white men with large beards and helmets on their heads.
Why did Quetzalcoatl leave America?
Why Quetzalcoatl–
"man" left America still remains a mystery. Many modern interpreters of Toltec and Aztec legends agree that he, not without the help of Tezcatlipoca (Titlaucan), became mired in sins and, having violated the orders and principles he had introduced, could no longer rule the people he had chosen.
Other researchers believe that Quetzalcoatl’s active opposition to sacrifices to himself (in the sense of God) and, in particular, to other gods, was met with hostility by the priests and, in the end, resulted in a massive conspiracy against him on the part of the followers of these gods. As proof of this, the fact is sometimes cited that after the departure or expulsion of Quetzalcoatl, the Aztecs revived the custom of making human sacrifices to him. At the same time, we were always talking about representatives of the nobility who were secretly strangled to carry out the ritual of sacrifice.
True, there is another opinion on this matter - this barbarism arose not because the priests revived the old cult, but because of a complete distortion of the idea of Quetzalcoatl–
"person". He suggested sacrificing his own will, not his body. It was the living soul of man, according to God, that had to move away from earthly life and find unity with the divine cosmic will in order to give real food to the existence of the Universe.
***
Who were the white bearded god
Aztecs Quetzalcoatl and the white-skinned ruler of the Toltecs Se Acatl Naxchitl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl? Were they the same man or humanoid god who appeared first in Xochicalpo, then in Tollan, Chichen Itza, Aztlan and finally in Texcoto? Or were they different “people” of the same era who left traces from about 700 BC? (and according to Diego de Landa from 1000 BC) to 1300. in different places of the American continent, and perhaps appeared there even earlier.
Readmy work on this topic "
Quetzalcoatlus- the name of the deity of ancient America in the Nahuatl language, one of the main gods of the Aztec pantheon and the pantheons of other civilizations of Central America. as well as the name of a historical figure.
In addition, in honor of the Aztec god, Quetzalcoatl (lat. Quetzalcoatlus), probably the largest representative of the pterosaur order. and flying animals throughout the history of the planet.
Supreme God of the Aztecs
Quetzalcoatl (Quetzalcoatl, "feathered serpent") - in the Nahuatl language - the name of the deity of ancient America, one of the main gods of the Aztec pantheon and the pantheons of many other civilizations of Central America, as well as the name that was given to some Toltec rulers.
The Aztec god Quetzalcoatl (Serpent covered with precious green feathers of the Quetzal bird) - creator of the world, creator of humanity and culture, lord of the elements, god of the Morning Star, patron of priesthood and science - was the most popular in the pantheon of the peoples of pre-Hispanic Central America from the Olmec era (XII-VI centuries BC). In Aztec mythology, Quetzalcoatl also appears as the earthly ruler of the Toltec capital Tollan. He is kind and wise, but his eternal rival, the god Tezcatlipoca, ultimately defeats him by cunning, and the good Quetzalcoatl is forced to flee east across the sea. He promised to return, and therefore the Aztecs initially mistook the Spanish conquistador F. Cortes for Quetzalcoatl, who had returned to them.
The quetzal (quetzal, quetzal) is a small bird with bright emerald plumage that was highly valued in traditional cultures of the Americas. The quetzal is an ancient symbol of love of freedom: this bird does not live in captivity.
Quetzalcoatl (Quetzalcoatl, Quetzalcoatl; Quetzalcoatl, “feathered serpent”) - in the Nahuatl language - the name of the deity of ancient America, one of the main gods of the Aztec pantheon and the pantheons of other civilizations of Central America, as well as the name of a historical figure.
The quetzal (quetzal, quetzal, quetzal) is a small bird with bright emerald plumage that was highly valued in traditional cultures of the Americas. The quetzal is an ancient symbol of love of freedom: this bird does not live in captivity.
The roots of the Serpent cult go back to ancient times. The snake represented earth and vegetation, but this was in Teotihuacan, where snakes were depicted with quetzal feathers. More detailed images were found in the Temple of Quetzalcoatl, in which one can see a rattlesnake with long green quetzal feathers.
In Teotihuacan, Tlaloc, the god of water, was worshiped, while Quetzalcoatl, like a snake, personified the fertility of the earth and was subordinate to Tlaloc. After the development of the cult, he became independent.
Over time, Quetzalcoatl merged with other deities and adopted their properties. Quetzalcoatl was often associated with Ehecatl (Eecatl), the god of air, personifying the forces of nature, and was also associated with the morning star (under the name Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli). depths of the underworld from west to east solar disk). Quetzalcoatl became the embodiment of rain, divine waters and winds, while Tlaloc was the god of underground and lake waters, caves and rivers, as well as plants. And finally, Quetzalcoatl became one of the creator gods .
In Xochicalco, rulers began to associate their power with the name of Quetzalcoatl, and images of the god acquired more human features. Over time, the Toltecs adopted the religion, and their rulers began to use the name Quetzalcoatl. The Toltecs portrayed the Feathered God as a man possessing divine traits, which were also associated with their rulers.
The most famous of these rulers was Topiltzin Se Acatl Quetzalcoatl, whose legends are practically inseparable from the legends about the god. The Toltecs associated Quetzalcoatl with their own god, Tezcatlipoca (Tezcatlipoca), and made them equal rivals and twins. One of the legends about Se Acatl says that he considered his face so ugly that he grew a long beard to hide it and later began wearing a white mask. The legend was somewhat distorted, and in images Quetzalcoatl was often depicted as a white-bearded man.
The worship of Quetzalcoatl included the sacrifice of butterflies and hummingbirds, and in the later period of the cult, people were also sacrificed.
Aztec god Quetzalcoatl - conquistador or alien?
Quetzalcoatel is perhaps the most mysterious figure in Aztec mythology. It is often said that the Indian civilization was destroyed because they mistook the Spanish conqueror for this deity. And others no less sincerely believe that the real Quetzalcoatel is an alien from outer space. So where is the truth?
To understand who the Feathered Serpent Quetzalcoatl, who was worshiped by the Aztecs, could be, you should carefully study the mythology of this people. Fortunately, it has reached us in fairly detailed form.
The Aztecs believed that at the dawn of the world, the supreme god and goddess gave birth to four sons, called Texcatlipocas. Each of them ruled its own side of the world, and therefore had a distinctive color. Later, the red Tezcatlipoca received the name Xipe Totec, the white became Quetzalcoatl, and the blue Huitzilopochtli. And the black one became Tezcatlipa. The brother gods began creating the world. The main work was entrusted to two people: Quetzalcutl and Tezcatlipoca (in the later version - Huitzilopochtli). First, the demiurge gods created fire, then half of the sun, which “being not whole, shone not much, but little.” Next they created man and woman. And they ordered that people be born from them, “and they were all lazy, but always worked.” Only after this did the gods create time, the gods of hell, heaven...... And, finally, the water in which the monster was raised. And they made earth out of it.
After this, the gods noticed that half of the sun was shining too weakly. Tezcatlipoca became the sun to give light to the world.
Brothers' Rivalry
A few centuries later, Quetzalcoatl also wanted to become a luminary. He hit Tezcatlipoca with a large stick, causing him to fall into the water. Its shine has faded. Tezcatlipoca turned into a jaguar - a nocturnal animal - and exterminated the giants in revenge. Quetzalcoatl became the sun, the earth was repopulated, but Tezcatlipoca did not accept defeat. After some time, he, in the form of a jaguar, made his way to the sky and struck Quetzelcoatl with his paw. He fell from the heavenly throne. A hurricane began, many people were blown away and died, and the survivors turned into monkeys. Tezcatlipoca won, but it was not he who became the sun, but his protégé, the rain god Tlaloc. After some time, the offended Quetzalcoatl sent fire rain. People died again or turned into turkeys.
Back in the 30s of the 20th century, the American archaeologist George Vaillant tried to dispel the myth of the “white bearded god”: The monks decided to use this myth as evidence that the Apostle Thomas visited Mexico at one time and drew attention to the Christianization of the inhabitants. In an effort to justify the conquest, the monks attached great importance to the myth of the blond god, who, when bidding farewell to his people, promised to return to them from the east by sea. However, Quetzalcoatl of the annals of the Valley of Mexico was never blond....” he wrote.
Sources: ru.wiki2.org, otvet.mail.ru, stihi.ru, leyv.3dn.ru, shkolazhizni.ru
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Quetzalcoatlus(“feathered serpent”) - in the Nahuatl language - the name of a deity of ancient America, one of the main gods of the Aztec pantheon and the pantheons of other Central American civilizations, as well as the name of a historical figure.
The quetzal (quetzal, quetzal, quetzal) is a small bird with bright emerald plumage that was highly valued in traditional cultures of the Americas. The quetzal is an ancient symbol of love of freedom: this bird does not live in captivity.
In addition, Quetzalcoatlus, the largest representative of the pterosaur order, received its name in honor of the Aztec god.
The roots of the Serpent cult in Mesoamerica go back to ancient times; The first images of bird-like snakes date back to the period 1150-500 BC. e. The snake represented earth and vegetation, but it was in Teotihuacan (circa 150 BC) where snakes were depicted with quetzal feathers. More detailed images were found in the Temple of Quetzalcoatl, built around 200 BC. e., on which you can see a rattlesnake with long green quetzal feathers.
In Teotihuacan they worshiped the god of water, while Quetzalcoatl, like a snake, personified the fertility of the earth and was subordinate to Tlaloc. After the development of the cult, he became independent.
Over time, Quetzalcoatl merged with other deities and adopted their properties. Quetzalcoatl was often associated with Ehecatl (Eecatl), the god of air, personifying the forces of nature, and was also associated with the morning star (Venus) (under the name Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli). Double (nahual, nagual) and twin of Quetzalcoatl Xolotl - god of the evening star, planet Venus At night, he transports the solar disk through the depths of the underworld from west to east. Quetzalcoatl became the embodiment of rain, divine waters and winds, while Tlaloc was the god of underground and lake waters, caves and rivers, as well as plants. And finally Quetzalcoatl became one of the creator gods.
The influence of the god Teotihuacan also spread to the Mayans, who called him K"uk"ulkan.
In Xochicalco (700-900 AD), rulers began to associate their power with the name of Quetzalcoatl, and images of the god acquired more human features. Over time, the religion was adopted by the Toltecs, and their rulers began to use the name Quetzalcoatl. The Toltecs portrayed the Feathered God as a man possessing divine traits, which were also associated with their rulers.
The most famous of these rulers was Se Acatl Naxchitl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl (One Reed Our Lord the Feathered Serpent - Nahuatl) (923-947 or 947-1000s), the legends of whom are practically inseparable from the legends of the god. Currently, the most accepted date for the appearance of Quetzalcoatl in Tula is considered to be 980. The Toltecs associated Quetzalcoatl with their own god, Tezcatlipoca (Tezcatlipoca), and made them equal rivals and twins. One of the legends about Se Acatl says that he considered his face so ugly that he grew a long beard to hide it and later began wearing a white mask. The legend was somewhat distorted, and in images Quetzalcoatl was often depicted as a white-bearded man.
In pseudoscientific circles, Quetzalcoatl's characteristic appearance is often interpreted as evidence of visits by Caucasian travelers to ancient America.
The worship of Quetzalcoatl included the sacrifice of butterflies and hummingbirds, and in the later period of the cult (when Quetzalcoatl's influence as a politician waned) people were also sacrificed.
99. QUEZALCOATL
Quetzalcoatl is one of the main deities in the mythology of the Toltec Indians of Central America. His name means "Feathered Serpent". He was revered as the creator of the world and the creator of man, as the lord of the elements, the patron of the priesthood and science. The most ancient sculptural images of Quetzalcoatl date back to the 8th–5th centuries BC. e.
Many centuries later, the image of Quetzalcoatl was combined in the popular consciousness with the image of a real historical person - Topiltsin. He was the ruler of the Toltec Indian tribe at the end of the 9th - beginning of the 10th centuries AD. At that time, the Indians developed the custom of deifying rulers, and the deified Topiltzin took the name Quetzalcoatl.
In folk tales, Topiltzin is already completely identified with the god Quetzalcoatl, and the capital of the Toltecs, the city of Tollan, which means “Place of Reeds,” appears as the embodiment of abundance, the center of a happy, serene life.
Legend says that in those days when the Toltecs were ruled by the god Quetzalcoatl, the stems of edible reeds were tall and thick, like tree trunks, a person could barely carry one ear of corn on his back, pumpkins grew many times larger than today, and cotton was born colored - red , yellow, green, blue and orange, so it didn't have to be painted. Quetzalcoatl taught the Toltecs building skills and various crafts; they began to melt gold and silver and make various things from them, process emeralds and other green stones - Quetzalcoatl's favorite color.
The Toltecs built a temple of Quetzalcoatl of unprecedented height; a staircase with many steps led to its top, so narrow that you could barely put your foot on them. They built many houses for Quetzalcoatl, some were built from precious stones, others from gold and silver, others from sea shells, and others from bright bird feathers.
Quetzalcoatl's fame spread throughout the world.
It was probably during the reign of Topiltzin-Quetzalcoatl that the city of Tollan truly reached its greatest prosperity. There are different opinions about where ancient Tollan was located. It is most likely that it stood on the site of the modern city of Tula, 80 km from the capital of Mexico - Mexico City. There, archaeologists discovered the remains of the temple of Quetzalcoatl with a staircase consisting of narrow steep steps, with columns and bas-reliefs depicting people in feathered headdresses.
However, Topiltsin's reign was not calm. Not all Toltecs recognized his right to the throne, since he was illegitimate, and in addition, having introduced the cult of Quetzalcoatl as the main cult, he came into conflict with the priests of Tezcatlipoca, the god of war, night and earthquakes.
Tezcatlipoca was one of the most ancient gods. His constant epithets are “the one who disposes at his own discretion,” “the one whose slaves we are all.” In myths, Tezcatlipoca often acts as an opponent of Quetzalcoatl.
Topiltzin-Quetzalcoatl lost the fight with the priests of Tezcatlipoca and, together with the few who remained loyal to him, the Toltecs were expelled from Tollan.
According to legend, Quetzalcoatl sailed across the ocean to a magical land.
In reality, Topiltsyn settled among the nomadic tribes and soon became their leader. Having formed a strong army from the nomads under his control, Topiltzin-Quetzalcoatl undertook a victorious campaign against the powerful city-states on the Yucatan Peninsula and in mountainous Guatemala, founded by the Mayan Indians.
Unlike most ancient conquerors, Topiltsin treated the culture of the people he conquered with care. A new stage has begun in the history of Mayan civilization, called the Maya-Toltec era.
The Mayans adopted the cult of Quetzalcoatl and began to worship this god under the name Kukulcan, which in their language also means “Feathered Serpent.”
During Topiltzin’s lifetime, on the rock of Cerro de la Malinche, an image of him was made in the image of Quetzalcoatl, signed with his full name: “Se Acatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl.” The image has survived quite well to this day - everything except the face. Whether it collapsed due to natural causes or was destroyed by opponents of the overthrown ruler is unknown.
Legend claims that Quetzalcoatl was tall, with a long head, bearded and white-skinned. This gives reason to assume that Topiltsin was a European, most likely a Norman.
It is known that the Scandinavian Vikings reached the shores of America. In their appearance, they were very different from the short, dark and beardless Indians of Central America and, naturally, should have seemed to them like aliens from another, otherworldly world. The legend directly states that Quetzalcoatl's face is "ugly." According to Indian ideas of beauty, the lines of the forehead and nose were supposed to form almost a right angle with each other. To achieve this effect, the babies' heads were placed in a special device made of boards, which deformed the skull as needed. (The author of the book “The Secret of the Mayan Priests” V. Kuzmishchev notes: “Judging by what the Mayans have achieved in science, art, architecture and other fields of activity, such deformation of the skull in infancy does not affect mental abilities in the future.”) Topiltsin’s face -Quetzalcoatlus, if he really was a European and had not undergone such an operation in childhood, must have seemed ugly to the Indians.
The legend that Quetzalcoatl, leaving Tollan, promised to return and bring down his wrath on the Indians, played a fatal role during the Spanish conquest of America in the 16th century. When Spanish ships landed on the shores of America and tall, white-skinned, bearded people disembarked, the Indians mistook them for the companions of an angry god, and their leader Cortes for Quetzalcoatl himself. This plunged the Indians into sacred horror and largely deprived them of the ability to actively resist the conquerors.