ECONOMICS OF THE ORGANIZATION
INTRODUCTION
The textbook for the discipline “Economics of an Organization” was compiled in accordance with the requirements of the State educational standard of secondary vocational education for the minimum content and level of training of graduates in specialty 080114 “Land and property relations”, approved. Ministry of Education of Russia dated May 15, 2004
In accordance with the requirements of the State Educational Standard, as a result of studying the discipline, the student must:
have an idea:
Ø about the main aspects of the development of the industry, organization (enterprise) as economic entities in a market economy;
know:
Ø composition of the organization’s material, labor and financial resources, indicators of their effective use, issues of resource saving, energy-saving technologies;
Ø pricing mechanisms, forms of remuneration;
Ø main performance indicators of the organization (enterprise);
be able to:
Ø calculate the main technical and economic indicators of the organization’s activities according to the accepted methodology;
Ø use computer equipment in user mode.
The material of the textbook provides for the study of a complex of economic problems characterizing the economic activities of a Russian enterprise, from the moment of choosing its organizational and legal form and registration to the organization of production and management, sales of products, analysis of work results and selection of directions for further development, which will allow students to obtain the necessary knowledge and form skills.
This textbook provides for students control tasks, which can be performed both during classroom lessons and for organizing independent extracurricular training. These tasks are located at the end of each section of the manual, which will allow students to consolidate the acquired theoretical knowledge and develop the ability to apply it in specific production situations.
Using the textbook will allow the student to effectively organize educational activities and successfully prepare for tests, exams and coursework.
LECTURE 1
CHAPTER 1. ORGANIZATION (ENTERPRISE) IN THE STRUCTURE OF THE NATIONAL ECONOMY
Topic 1.1. Sectoral structure of the modern economy
Spheres and structure of the economy. The economy of any country is a single complex of interrelated industries, distinguishing social reproduction within national borders.
The national economy is the result of the economic and social development of society, the development of specialization and cooperation of labor, and international cooperation with other countries.
The national economic complex has special sectoral, reproductive, regional and other structural characteristics.
When analyzing the national economy in economic research, concepts such as sphere, industry, economic sector.
Spheres of the economy are divided into specialized industries.
Industry is a set of enterprises that are characterized by:
Unity of economic purpose of manufactured products;
Uniformity of consumed materials;
Common technical base and technological processes
Special professional composition of personnel;
Specific working conditions.
For example, the sphere of material production includes industries in which the means of production and consumer goods necessary for the life and development of society are created.
The sectoral division of the economy is the result of a historical process, development of the social division of labor. The division of social labor manifests itself in three forms: general, particular, individual.
General division of labor is expressed in the division of social production into large sectors of the national economy: industry, agriculture, construction, transport, etc.
Private division of labor manifests itself in the separation of individual sectors and productions within industry, agriculture, construction and other branches of material production. For example, in industry, metallurgy, engineering, light industry, food industry and other industries stood out.
Unit division of labor finds its expression in the division and organization of labor directly in enterprises.
All sectors of the national economy form a sectoral structure. Industry structure- this is a set of sectors of the economic complex, characterized by certain proportions and relationships.
In industry terms, the structure of the economic complex is represented by two areas - material production(production sector) and non-productive sphere.
The basis of the economic complex is the sphere of material production, which employs more than 2/3 of the total population employed in all spheres of economic activity.
Production scope includes:
Industries that create wealth are industry, agriculture, construction;
Industries that deliver material benefits to the consumer are transport and communications;
Industries related to the production process in the sphere of circulation are trade, public catering, logistics, sales, procurement.
Non-productive sphere is a conventional name for economic sectors, the results of which primarily take the form of services. In Russia, due to its relatively recent entry into the path of market transformations, a slightly different classification applies.
The non-production sphere includes:
Housing, communal and consumer services for the population;
Passenger transport;
Communications (for servicing organizations and non-productive activities of the population);
Healthcare, physical education;
Social Security;
Education;
Science and scientific services;
Culture and art;
Lending, financing and insurance;
Public administration;
Defense and public order.
Each of the specialized industries, in turn, is divided into complex industries and types of production. The industry, for example, includes more than 15 large industries such as electric power, fuel industry, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical and petrochemical industries, mechanical engineering and metalworking, forestry, pulp and paper industry, construction materials industry, light and food industries and others industry.
Development of society and economy, further deepening production specialization leads to the formation of new industries and types of production. Along with specialization and differentiation, processes are taking place cooperation, production integration, leading to the development of sustainable production links between industries, to the creation of mixed production and inter-industry complexes.
Intersectoral complex– an integration structure that characterizes the interaction of various industries and their elements, different stages of production and distribution of the product.
Intersectoral complexes arise and develop both within a separate sector of the economy and between different sectors. In industry, for example, there are fuel and energy, metallurgical, machine-building and other complexes. The agro-industrial and construction complexes, which unite different sectors of the national economy, have a more complex structure.
Sectoral economics deals with the study of patterns of reproduction of products (goods and services) within a specific industry, part economic system. Separate sectors of the national economy are characterized by the commonality of products or services, the profession and qualifications of workers, technology and organization of production in the system of national division of labor and distribution of economic ties. The number of economic sectors is determined by the scale of the country, the structure of the economy, the level of economic development, the social division of labor and a number of other factors. In statistical analytical materials reflecting the economic development of the national economy of Russia, it is customary to highlight a number of large sectors (Fig. 1.3.6.): industry, agriculture and forestry; health, physical education and social welfare; trade, public catering, logistics (MTS), sales and procurement; housing and communal services (HCS) and non-production types of consumer services; lending, finance and insurance; Culture and art; education; science and scientific service; apparatus of administrative governing bodies; transport; connection; industry; construction.
Fig.1.3.6. Main sectoral economic systems
The number of economic sectors in a country's national economy is reflected in the number of ministries and departments. Economics of Education- a type of branch economic science that studies relationships in the Russian education system. Industry management in Russia at the federal level education system carried out by the government body - the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation.
1.3.3. Basic economic theories, laws, principles and rules
Economic theories - are formed as a reflection of scientific knowledge of the economic laws of the development of social production and the relations emerging in society regarding the exchange, distribution and consumption of its results. The most significant modern economic theories: labor value; supply and demand; welfare; big push; economic growth; crises; industrial society; the value of the interest rate; cyclicality of the economy; multiplier and accelerator and a number of others. We will consider some of these economic theories in this paragraph (Fig. 1.3.7), and a number of theories and economic laws are outlined briefly in the relevant sections of the anthology and are offered to students for independent study or repetition.
Rice. 1.3.7. Basic economic theories
Classical theory of labor value (LC) developed by economists A. Smith, D. Riccardo, K. Marx. The theory develops and operates with the concepts of “capital”, “market”, “labor”, “labor”, “cost”, “price”, “profit”, “phases of reproduction”, “models of commodity exchange”. Central place in TS theories assigned to the role of labor in the economic life of society ( "labor is the source of wealth" ), the study of consumer value and the cost of goods, the leading role of capital and profit in expanded production ( "D-T-D" ), the dual nature of labor, and the methodology for calculating prices based on socially necessary costs. The development of the theory of labor value was completed by K. Marx in his main 4-volume work “Capital”. Based on the labor theory of value, Marx created surplus value theory, which explains the main source of profit and shows the mechanism of exploitation of hired workers by capital owners. The source of profit, according to the theory, is surplus value, that is, the value created by the unpaid labor of workers. Welfare theory- is based on the application to the economy of the principle of the leading role of the consumer and the presence of an economic optimum. Under certain conditions, a specific equilibrium of production and distribution of resources can be achieved in a market economy ( V. Pareto's law). The economic optimum can also be achieved in a planned economy if the prices set correspond to the calculated values under existing resource restrictions. But the problem of welfare exists because the relationship between the efficiency of the economic system and the fairness of the distribution of the results of its functioning has not been established. Theory of economic growth- explores the relationships between general indicators of the development of the national economy (national income, final product, rate of accumulation, volume of investment) and determines the prerequisites for ensuring balanced economic growth. The foundations of this theory were laid by the economist G.A. Feldman when developing the first five-year plan for the development of the national economy of the USSR. He developed a model that describes the growth of national income depending on the increase in production assets and the efficiency of their use. In modern economic theory, economic growth is assessed on the basis of more complex multifactor mathematical models. The construction of these models is carried out on the basis of two possible theoretical premises: “neoclassical” - for a stable economy and full employment, or “neo-Keynesian” - for an unstable economy and the presence of unemployment. Theory of industrial society- put forward by economists R. Aron and J. Galbraith in the middle of the twentieth century. The main idea is that in an industrial society, the status of ownership of the means of production loses its significance, the role of state regulation of the economy increases, and the key factors of production become the knowledge and skills of engineering and management personnel. The owner-capitalist class is being replaced by a new dominant force: big managers. Unlike owner-capitalists, they do not put forward maximum profit as a goal, but focus on economic growth, risk reduction and the dependence of the enterprise (firm) on the market. In this regard, planning becomes a mandatory attribute, an objective need of modern industrial activity, and capitalism is transformed into a new industrial society. Supply theory explores the motivational effect of changes in the tax system on aggregate supply. The founders of this theory in the late 60s of the twentieth century were economists M. Feldetain, M. Boskin, L. Laffer, who substantiated the possibility of tax stimulation of economic growth through tax rates. This takes into account the relationship between tax rates, the level of investment activity, labor supply, the amount of savings, the number of people of retirement age, production volumes, inflation rates and a number of others. Reducing tax rates and accelerating production growth leads to lower inflation. It is generally accepted that there are two weak points in supply theory: overestimation of the elasticity of labor supply and the response of investment activity to changes in tax rates, as well as underestimation of the time factor required to adapt the economy to new conditions. Cyclicity theory economics describes periodically repeating similar phases of economic dynamics: the emergence of a new cycle in the depths of the old one, formation, spread, maturity, stable development), crisis, displacement of an outdated cycle by a more progressive one. Classification of economic cycles is carried out according to stages, types of activity, scale and object. Many famous economists studied the theory of cyclicity: K. Marx, N. D. Kondratiev, W. Mitchell, K. Clark and others. Product life cycle theory- states that products undergo a life cycle in their development, consisting of 4 stages: introduction, growth, maturity, decline. Depending on the stage (stage) of the life cycle, the product and its production are moved to other countries. Crisis theory- represents part of the economic theory of cyclicality, which explains the occurrence of periodic crisis phases in economic development. Argues that a crisis represents a disruption of equilibrium and a transition to a new equilibrium. It is customary to distinguish two types of crises: destructive and connecting. Crises are inevitable in the development of any socio-economic system. They are a mandatory phase of the life cycle of any system. Their development goes through several stages: latent period (hidden accumulation of prerequisites; economic collapse with a sharp drop in production and high inflation); depression (lower balance); revival, slight growth with the achievement of the pre-crisis state on a new basis; rapid growth and economic recovery of economic sectors.
"capital starvation" (25-30 years), when the pace and scale of new construction increases, employment in production increases, the export of capital and investment in the processing of mineral and agricultural raw materials increases, the loan interest rate is high, etc.;
"capital saturation" (25-30 years), when excess capital appears, chronic unemployment occurs, a decrease in the movement of labor from primary industries to manufacturing industries, the export of capital is reduced and a reduced rate of interest occurs.
Large cycle theory states that there are large cycles lasting 50-60 years, which consist of two phases:
This theory was formulated by the economist N.D. Kondratiev in the 30s of the twentieth century and developed by K. Clark. Economic crises of overproduction, in accordance with the theory of large cycles, are leveled out by fluctuations in large waves, and real opportunities for crisis-free development of social production appear. The Big Push Theory developed by P. Rosenstein-Rodon, who proposed it for underdeveloped countries of the European periphery to bring the economy out of the state of post-war stagnation. According to the big push theory, large capital injections in the amount of 12-15% of national income are required to bring the country's economy out of stagnation. As a result of these measures, self-sustaining economic growth begins. The mobilization of capital is carried out as a result of special monetary and tax policies of the state (“forced savings”) and through the import of capital in the form of loans. The amount of investment must be sufficient to cover current capital needs and initiate economic growth. The theory is based on the positions of strict government regulation. Provided significant assistance to small European countries in reviving their economies after World War II. Absolute Advantage Theory in foreign trade, the higher efficiency in the production of goods due to natural or acquired advantages that one country may have relative to another country. In accordance with A. Smith's theory, the division of countries according to absolute advantages forms the basis of international trade. Theory of comparative advantage in foreign trade - according to the theory of D. Ricardo, a country should export those goods that it produces at the lowest cost relative to other goods, although in absolute terms these costs may be higher than in other countries. Theory of transition economy- studies the development of economic systems in countries where the transformation of an administrative-command economy into a market economy is taking place. Factors of production theory- a country exports goods in the production of which its relatively abundant and cheap factor is intensively used, and imports goods in the production of which its relatively rare and expensive factor is used. Economic cycles - a constant dynamic characteristic of the economy, including periodic ups and downs of market conditions, which, first of all, manifest themselves in various forms of mismatch between supply and demand. The main characteristics of the cycle are: its causes, phases (revival, boom, recession, rise), dynamic parameters, frequency of repetition, amplitude of business activity indicators. External (“exogenous”) factors of cyclicality include producers generating “initial impulses” (scientific and technological discoveries, migration, population dynamics, new sources of resources); to internal (“endogenous”) factors - impulse modifiers within the framework of phase-by-phase fluctuations (changes in consumption and investment). Cycles are characterized by fluctuations in business activity: changes in production volumes; the level of employment, income of the state and the country's population, the level of inflation, etc. The intensity of cyclical fluctuations in a market economy is related to the volume of investment. A large-scale renewal of capital and an increase in production volumes create the material and technical basis for the next cycle. Based on this, in modern cycle theory there are two main phases: “decline” and “rise” of production. Characteristic features of a recession are: liquidation of inventories, reduction in industrial investment, falling demand for labor, a sharp decrease in profits, weakening demand for credit. The features of the rise are described by the same phenomena, but with the opposite effect. It is customary to distinguish (Fig. 1.3.8) short-term (small) cycles (3-5 years), medium-term cycles (10-12 years) and large cycles (50-60 years) of economic development. Medium-term cycles characterized by modernization of equipment, increased investment in real sectors of the economy, industry, and increased market capacity. Large cycles associated with periodic fundamental changes in technology and technology under the influence of scientific and technological progress. For example, the invention of gasoline and diesel engines and their widespread use due to advances in the petrochemical production of fuels and lubricants led to the displacement of steam engines as less efficient devices. The development of aircraft manufacturing and the emergence of jet engines gives impetus to the development of rocketry and space technology; telegraph and radio are being replaced by satellite television and mobile telecommunications multifunctional communications; abacus and adding machines were successfully replaced by microcalculators and personal computers, etc.
Rice. 1.3.8. Main types and characteristics of economic cycles
A crisis- the decline in business activity reaches its lowest point (for example, the early 30s in the USA or the 90s in Russia);
Depression- stagnant state of the economy, when the observed maximum decline in business activity passes the lowest point (mid-30s USA, second half 90s Russia);
Revival- the growth vector of business activity becomes positive and is characterized by a stable upward trend (the end of the 30s in the USA, the 50s in the economies of Germany and Japan, and the end of the 90s in the Russian economy);
Climb- the greatest dynamics of growth and expansion of business activity is observed; economic growth indicators reach and exceed the values of similar indicators in the previous similar period.
Cyclicality is a mechanism of self-regulation of a market economy. The economic cycle consists of four successive semi-phases:
Graphically, the processes of cyclical self-regulation of a market economy without taking into account government regulators and taking into account the latter are presented Business cycle models (Samuelson-Hicks).Economic laws, principles and rules - these are significant, stable, repeating objective cause-and-effect relationships and interdependencies of economic phenomena, processes and relationships regarding the choice of directions for using rather rare goods to satisfy competing goals. Knowledge of such laws, principles and rules is the subject of economic science. The most important economic laws, principles and rules necessary for a detailed description of the area and subject of our course are highlighted in this classification of the main elements and concepts of economics (Fig. 1.3.9).
Fig.1.3.9. Basic economic laws, principles and rules
Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility is that each additional unit of a given product as it is consumed will bring less and less satisfaction to the consumer. It is assumed that consumer tastes are constant and the consumption function is continuous. Therefore, the willingness to continue purchasing this product can only arise if the price for it decreases. Principle of Diminishing Marginal Utility- a postulate according to which the marginal utility of each additional unit of a good decreases as the subject increases consumption of the corresponding good. It was first formulated by the German economist G. Gossen in 1854. In economic literature, this principle is known by the author’s name as “Gossen’s first law.” See also: Marginal utility of a product(Clause 15, Section 1.1.1 of the Reader). Law of supply shows a direct relationship between changes in price and changes in quantity supplied. Law of supply expresses the direct dependence of the supply of a certain product ( Q s) from the price level for it ( R) - other things being equal; those.: ΔQs = f(Δp). A higher price encourages the producer to increase the quantity supplied, but an increase in opportunity cost sets a limit to the quantity supplied at any given price. A change in the quantity of supply due to an increase or decrease in the price of a product is demonstrated by movement along the line of stable supply itself. Changes in non-price determinants ( see offer), that is, any of the variables that fall under the definition of “other things being equal” lead to a shift in the supply curve as a whole. Such shifts along the graph to the right (increase) or to the left (decrease) are called changes in the sentence “itself.” The law of increasing opportunity costs is that as the volume of production of a given good (product) increases, the opportunity costs of producing additional units of the good increase. The law of increasing marginal costs - as the production of a good (product) increases, the opportunity (marginal) costs of producing each new unit of production increase. Law of Increasing Relative Costs- characterizes the relationship between an increase in the production of one product IN by reducing the production of other A . It is used in situations where society's production capabilities are close to the limit, resources are limited, and profitability is declining. Law of money circulation- says that the amount of money in circulation must ensure a balance between the money supply and the cost of the good (products: goods and services) to be sold (taking into account their prices and the speed of circulation of the money supply). See also Demand for money(clause 47, section 1.1.1 of the reader). Walras' law The monetary value of all goods on the supply side in general equilibrium is equal to the total monetary value of goods on the demand side:
Law of Demand- other things being equal, a decrease in price leads to an increase in the quantity demanded, and an increase in price leads to a decrease in the quantity demanded. Law of Demand this is an expression of the inverse relationship between the quantity of demand for a certain good (product) ( Q d) on the price level for it ( R) - other things being equal; those.: ΔQd = f(1/Δp). The inverse relationship between quantity demanded and price is due to the principle of diminishing marginal utility, as well as the effects of income and substitution. The law of demand can be represented graphically as "demand curve"(see: section 1.1.2. Reader, p. 8.), which has a negative slope. Changes in the quantity of demand for a good lead to movement along the line of stable demand from one point to another due to an increase or decrease in the price of a given good (product). Shifts in the curve (i.e., changes in demand itself) occur under the influence of non-price determinants, considered as “other things being equal,” that is, as constants. Law of Diminishing Returns says that in short time periods, when the value of production capacity is fixed, the marginal productivity of a variable factor will decrease, starting from a certain level of expenditure of this variable factor. Has an alternative name Law of Diminishing Returns- This is an illustration of the principle according to which, when one type of cost increases while all other types of costs remain unchanged, the productivity gain from this variable factor begins to decline. In the short term, when the technological process remains unchanged, and the value of at least one factor is fixed (unchangeable), a moment inevitably comes when each new unit of a variable factor involved in production will provide a smaller increase in output than the previous one. The law of diminishing returns was first formulated at the end of the 18th century. J. Turgot in relation to agriculture (a classic example of the “law of diminishing soil fertility”: it is impossible to grow the entire world supply of food on a plot of one hectare with an increase in labor and capital). In relation to industrial production, this law was formulated by D. Andersen and D. B. Clark. Law of falling average rate of profit- suggests that the growth of the productive power of labor contributes to an increase in the organic composition of capital and leads to a fall in the rate of profit. Formulated by K. Marx. Law of Diminishing Productivity- reflects the principle of decreasing efficiency of successive expenditures of labor, capital and decreasing soil fertility. The law states that if an additional number of workers is added to a constant labor force, then each subsequent worker will produce a decreasing number of goods (products). In other words, there are marginal labor costs, upon reaching which the entrepreneur is forced to stop additional acquisition of labor. Law of Diminishing Return on Capital- reflects a decrease in the return on capital as a result of the fact that increasing capital is used by a constant number of workers. Says that the expansion of the use of capital with constant costs of other factors of production (labor, land, information) leads to an increase in the physical volume of the marginal product to a certain size, and then the productivity of capital begins to decrease in such a way that the concentration of capital with high profitability will lead to a decrease profit margins and return on capital. The law was formulated by J.B. Clark and P. Samuelson. Law of Income Distribution(Pareto's law) (see paragraph 54 of section 1.1.1. Reader) - expresses the relationship between the amount of income and the number of persons receiving it in the form of a normal distribution curve of income. First formulated by the Italian economist V. Pareto. Laffer's Law(see paragraph 56 of section 1.1.1. Reader) - reflects the dependence of the volume of tax revenues to the state budget on the tax rate and has a maximum at a certain value of the rate. Okun's Law reflects the empirical dependence of the rate of lag of real GNP (compared to potential GNP) on the excess of unemployment in its “natural” level: with an increase in “cyclical” unemployment by 2%, the lag of real GNP from potential is 4%. This means that there is a multiple percentage dependence of GNP losses on the growth of unemployment, which exceeds the sum of frictional and structural unemployment. Say's Law- the initial principle of modeling the conditions of macroeconomic equilibrium (aggregate demand = aggregate supply), which underlies the “classical” equilibrium model; According to this law, the total production of goods and services ("aggregate supply") itself generates an adequate level of aggregate demand, which "automatically" ensures equality. Recognition of this principle made it possible to search for a mechanism of macroeconomic equilibrium. "Utility Maximization Rule" (Consumer Equilibrium) a situation in which a subject cannot increase the total utility of the goods he consumes without changing the amount and structure of his expenses. Maximum total utility is achieved by distributing the consumer's income in such a way that the last monetary unit spent on the purchase of each type of product brings the same marginal utility. In economic theory, the principle of optimizing consumption is known as "Gossen's second law". The rule of resource use is the principle according to which an enterprise (firm), when using the resources at its disposal, maximizes profits or minimizes losses. To achieve these goals, an enterprise must use such an amount of resources that the value of the marginal product received from it in monetary form (MRP) is equal to the marginal monetary cost of a given resource (MRC), i.e. MRP=MRC. If MRP>MRC, then the enterprise’s (firm’s) consumption of one more unit of resource will increase income to a greater extent than costs, and, therefore, increase profit. A different ratio of these values (MRC>MRP) means that profit can only be increased by reducing the use of a given factor of production. In a situation where the monetary values of the marginal product and resource costs are in equilibrium, it is impossible to increase income or reduce losses by changing the consumption of a production factor. This rule is universal in nature, valid for enterprises (firms) operating in markets of both perfect and imperfect competition. The use of the principle has the same rationale and result as the rule of equality of marginal revenue and costs (MR=MC). However, in this case, profit maximization is assessed not from the point of view of the result - the corresponding volume of production, but from the point of view of costs - a certain amount of the resource used. "Rule of equality of marginal revenue and marginal cost" is a rule according to which a firm can maximize economic profit or minimize losses only if it produces a level of output at which marginal cost ( MS ) and marginal revenue are equal to ( M.R. ).
The practical application of this principle requires taking into account the following circumstances:
the equality MR=MC becomes a rule for maximizing profit if marginal costs begin to increase as the volume of production increases;
marginal revenue must be equal to or exceed average variable costs, otherwise it is more economical for the firm to stop production;
This rule is a guideline for maximizing profits for firms, regardless of the market structure.
However, with perfectly elastic demand, marginal revenue equals price ( R). Therefore, the equality of price and marginal cost ( p=MS) is a special case of profit maximization for a perfectly competitive market. "The rule for combining resources to ensure maximum profit"- a principle that allows, from all possible options for producing products at the lowest cost, to choose the one in which the enterprise maximizes economic profit (minimizes losses). An enterprise (firm) applies the ratio of resources that ensures the highest profit if the price for each resource is equal to its marginal product in monetary terms. "The rule for combining resources to ensure the lowest costs"- a principle that allows you to determine the quantities of each resource that a company must use to obtain a certain volume of output at minimal cost. In accordance with this principle, the mutual substitution of factors of production should continue until the physical volume of marginal products produced using various resources is proportional to their prices. Thus, equality of the relationship between the marginal product and price is achieved for all resources used, which ensures production at minimal costs.
Functions of sectoral economics:
- identifies particular economic patterns characteristic of a particular industry;
- shows the importance of the industry in the national economy;
- reflects its relationship with other industries;
- establishes conditions for the effective operation of economic laws;
- determines production organization methods, principles and means of enterprise management.
Sectoral economics is interconnected with economic theory, law, mathematics, statistics, computer science, marketing, management, accounting and other scientific disciplines.
Structure of the sectoral economy
In Russia, there are material and non-material spheres of the sectoral economy.The material sphere is represented by a group of 14 industries: industry, forestry, agriculture, fisheries, real estate, construction, etc.
The intangible sphere is a group of 9 industries: science, consumer services, housing and communal services, finance, education, healthcare.
Each sphere of the economy is divided into complex sectors. For example, industry includes energy, mechanical engineering, metallurgy, military, nuclear and other industries. The industries are interconnected - they can form inter-industry complexes (chemical-forestry, engineering and others).
Thus, the national economy is represented by industries:
- light industry;
- chemical industry;
- forestry industry;
- Agriculture;
- construction;
- motor transport;
- real estate;
- tourism;
- environmental management.
Industry Features
The economics of agriculture, unlike the economics of industry, depends on the biological patterns of development of living organisms, the cyclical nature of their growth, and the connection of technological processes with the earth. The economy of light industry is characterized by a quick return on investment. Industrial economies of the production sphere, in contrast to the non-production sphere, are based on capital (the basis of the non-production sphere is knowledge, skills, abilities), the level of production in the economy of non-ferrous metallurgy is largely determined by the country's mineral resource base, etc.Xcharacteristics of the investment attractiveness of the industry
From the point of view of investment attractiveness, the important economic characteristics of the industry are:- market size;
- profitability;
- excess or shortage of production capacity;
- barriers to entry (capital requirements);
- cost of finished products or services;
- speed of technology change.
Sectors of the economy
The term is a direct translation of a concept used in 19th-century German economic theory and was widely used in the works of Russian scientists even before the October Revolution of 1917. Used in Soviet economic science, statistics and practice. However, since the early 1990s, due to ideological overtones in Russia, the term was replaced by the concept of economy (country) and is now practically not used.
It is divided according to the types of activities of the subjects of relations.
Sectors of the national economy
Industries
OKONH distinguished the following enlarged industries:
- Chemical and petrochemical industry
- Mechanical engineering and metalworking
- Forestry, wood processing and pulp and paper industries
- Construction materials industry
- Glass and porcelain industry
- Microbiological industry
- Flour-grinding and feed industry
- Medical industry
- Printing industry
- Other industrial productions.
In OKONH, by analogy with the collecting branches of the national economy, collecting branches of industry were identified: mining industry, industry of building structures, parts and materials, packaging industry.
OKVED
All-Russian Classifier of Types of Economic Activities ( abbreviation OKVED) - part Unified system of classification and coding of technical, economic and social information of the Russian Federation (ESKK). Created based on the official Russian version Statistical classification of types of economic activities in the European Economic Community (NACE) Statistical classification of economic activities in the European Community ). Adopted by a resolution of the State Standard on November 6, put into effect on January 1. Replaces All-Union Classifier of Sectors of the National Economy (OKONKH) and parts I and IV All-Russian Classifier of Types of Economic Activities, Products and Services (OKDP) related to economic activities.
Links
- Directory OKONH. Detailed information.
- Decoding Goskomstat codes (OKVED)
see also
Links
Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.
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An analysis that identifies significant competitive factors in an industry that determine an increase or decrease in the rate of return on investment and thereby affect the degree of attractiveness of the industry for the company. In English: Branch analysis See… … Financial Dictionary
Industries with a large share of fixed assets in the asset structure. Such industries require large investments in the initial stages of production. In English: Industries with high capital inventory English synonyms: Capital intensive... ... Financial Dictionary
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- Industries and sectors of the global economy. Features and development trends, Kondratyev Vladimir Borisovich. In Russia, already at the highest political level they are talking about the need to re-industrialize the economy, or new industrialization. There is a growing understanding that to increase competitiveness and…
The concept of an economic sector. Classification of sectors of the national economy.
1. Branch of the economy
A sector of the economy is a set of enterprises and industries that have common products, technologies and satisfied needs.
The essence of the national economy is that it represents an established system of national and social reproduction of the state, in which industries, types and forms of social labor that have developed as a result of the long historical evolutionary development of a particular country are interconnected. The characteristics of the national economy are influenced by historical and cultural traditions, the geographical location of the state, and its role in the international division of labor.
A number of related sciences and academic disciplines are devoted to the study of the national economy:
industrial economics;
economics of construction;
agricultural economics;
economic theory
The structure of the national economy (from the Latin structura - order) is a complex of production in a particular country, which arose on the basis of a combination of social division of labor, natural resources, historical traditions and territorial specifics. The complex structure of the national economy is defined through such concepts as sector, industry, sphere of the national economy. Depending on the existing property relations in the national economy, sectors such as private, state, and cooperative are distinguished. Recently, this concept has been used in connection with the specifics of the social division of labor. Thus, the so-called real sector is distinguished as a set of industries in which material products are produced.
The concept of “industry” is the main structural unit of the national economy, which is a set of enterprises, institutions and organizations that perform the same socio-economic functions in the process of social reproduction, regardless of territorial location and departmental subordination. According to the sectoral structure, there is a classification of sectors of the national economy.
A group of homogeneous branches of the national economy forms the sphere of the national economy. Thus, in accordance with the specifics of production, as well as the distribution and redistribution of production goods, production and non-production spheres are distinguished.
The production sector of the national economy includes all sectors that produce material products,
Non-productive sector - industries producing non-productive services. Manufacturing sectors, depending on the use of the material product and the specifics of its creation, are divided into industry, agriculture and construction.
Heavy industry sectors, which include electric power, fuel industry, metallurgy, chemical and petrochemical industries, woodworking and other industries.
Light industry sectors: textiles, clothing, footwear, fur.
Food industry branches: Canning industry, Dairy industry, Meat industry, Oil and fat industry, Pasta industry, Confectionery industry, Wine industry, Brewing and soft drinks industry, Fishing industry, Salt industry, Sugar industry.
Industries Agriculture, in turn, includes the sectors of crop production and livestock production.
In general, the totality of all structural units constitutes the macroeconomic structure of the national economy.
The structure of the national economy is a set of historically established stable, capable of reproducing functional relationships between various units of the national economy.
The following types of structure of the national economy are distinguished:
1) household, implying consideration of the structure of the national economy as the relationship between households. The selection of this type of structure is due to the fact that households are a powerful economic entity, producing a significant part of the national wealth, influencing the nature of other relationships;
2) social structure, based on the division of the national economy into certain sectors that are organically interconnected. The division is made according to various criteria, for example, population groups, enterprises, types of labor. Usually there are public and private sectors of the economy;
3) sectoral structure, which involves identifying sectors of the economy and determining the nature and essence of the relationship between them. A branch of the national economy is a unit of the national economy that performs similar functional tasks in the process of social production. This type of structuring of the national economy is of great importance, as it allows for high-quality forecasting of economic development;
4) territorial structure, which involves analyzing the geographical distribution of productive forces within the national economy - the division of the national economy into various economic regions;
5) the infrastructure of the national economy, based on the definition of the type and nature of interaction between economic spheres;
6) the structure of foreign trade, which involves analyzing the nature of the relationships between various product groups, their imports and exports.
2. Economic infrastructure: types and significance for the national economy
The word "infrastructure" is formed from a combination of the Latin terms "infra" - "under, below" and "structura" - "location", structure. There is an ambiguous definition of infrastructure. Firstly, it is understood as a set of service systems, the main task of which is to ensure the operation of production and provide various services to the population. Secondly, infrastructure is understood as a set of units whose activities are aimed at ensuring the normal functioning of the national economy.
Infrastructure is of great importance for the functioning of the national economy, representing its integral part. At the present stage of development of the Russian economy, the role of infrastructure in the economy is increasing, and the process of its improvement continues.
The following main types of infrastructure in the national economy are distinguished:
1) production infrastructure;
2) social infrastructure;
3) market infrastructure.
Production infrastructure is a set of units of the national economy, the main purpose of which is to ensure the normal functioning of the production process. For example, cargo transportation, tonnage ship transportation, etc.
Social infrastructure is a set of units of the national economy, the functioning of which is associated with ensuring the normal functioning of the population and people. Its role in the modern national economy is constantly increasing, and the main task is to ensure the livelihoods of the population at an increasingly higher quality level. The influence of social infrastructure on the national economy is that it allows for the reproduction of labor resources - the main resource of the economy.
Market infrastructure is a set of units of the national economy, the functioning of which is aimed at ensuring the normal functioning of the market and its development. It is represented by a collection of various organizations and institutions that ensure the activities of various sectors of the economy.
Bibliography
1. www.su.edusite.ru.
2. www.informbureau.com.
4. Emelyanov A.M. Agricultural Economics. - M., 1982.
5. www.ecsocman.edu.ru
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