The darkness of low truths is dearer to us than the elevating deception.
Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin
Prudence is not cunning, but the ability to make decisions that correspond not to some pre-established template, but to a specific and objective reality.
Prudent decision making involves two steps: deliberation (gathering information, critically analyzing it, weighing the pros and cons) and the decision itself (choosing between alternative options).
A leader must develop the ability to make the right decisions. He must cultivate prudence.
Prudence allows us to perceive situations in all their complexity and make decisions accordingly.
Prudent decision making involves three steps: deliberation (gathering information and critically analyzing it), judgment (weighing the pros and cons), and decision (choosing between alternative options).
Specific knowledge bestowed by prudence
Prudence gives not theoretical, but practical information. For example, it tells us whether there are people in the organization who can carry out the decision we are about to make. Academic research or technical savvy cannot provide such information.
Prudence is cultivated through life experience and the contemplation of that experience. Solutions based only based on personal experience, are aimed at the past, not at the future. Contemplation of experience is what allows a leader to see novelty situation requiring new solutions. A leader looks at the future, he immediately sees, immediately understands: something has changed here, the situation is no longer the same, the old solutions will no longer work.
The Russian commander Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov (1730-1800) was prudent: he studied not theories, but the most concrete reality: “It is impossible to win any battle in the office... You don’t need methodism, but the right military view... Know how to use the terrain, control your happiness.” Suvorov's leadership turned out to be extremely effective: throughout his entire career he did not know a single defeat, fought more than 60 battles and won them all.
A prudent person knows how to take risks
Prudence does not guarantee success. No leader, no matter how prudent he may be, can be confident is that his subordinates are able to implement some of his decisions. “A prudent person,” says Pieper, “does not expect certainty where it cannot be, and does not deceive himself with false confidence.”
Science-based decision making works well where technical issues are being addressed. In leadership, scientific decision making is an illusion. A person prone to “scientific” decision-making does not inspire confidence.
Shakespeare's Hamlet is a good example of the morbid thirst for certainty. Hamlet wants certainty in everything, he always needs more information. As a result, he does nothing. Hamlet is unreasonable: out of fear in the face of the unknown, he does not make decisions. Shakespeare's play is a tragedy of indecision and inaction.
Pondering
Thinking is the first step towards making a decision.
Collect information and subject it to critical analysis. Check the reliability of sources, distinguish between objective facts and subjective opinions, truth and half-truths.
In his book “The Gulag Archipelago,” Alexander Solzhenitsyn talks about how in 1949, in the journal of the Academy of Sciences “Nature,” he found an article about the discovery of fossilized remains of fish and newts in the Siberian tundra. This fauna was discovered in an underground ice lens - in fact, in a frozen stream, which kept it in a state of absolute freshness for tens of thousands of years. The magazine reported that those who excavated these samples immediately willingly ate them.
The journalist did not name the members of the excavation team, but Solzhenitsyn immediately understood: these were the inhabitants of a hidden world that no one ever spoke about, since its very existence was a state secret. This was the world of the Gulag Archipelago. Solzhenitsyn knew from his own experience that only the inhabitants of the Gulag, starved to death, could immediately and with pleasure eat a prehistoric salamander.
Not all people can read between the lines. But we all have a moral obligation to critically analyze the information we receive. Moreover, we must not forget that the most dangerous disinformation is “the constant influx of aggressive and materialistic ideas that those who aspire to be public leaders project into the media in their struggle for personal success.”
Respect reality. We all tend to distort reality so that it comes into line with our emotions or personal interests. The behavior of the Pharisees in the Gospel is a well-known example of such perversion. After Christ healed the man born blind, the Pharisees should have understood: “This man was blind from birth, he gained sight, which means that the one who healed him is a saint.” But they themselves, blinded by their passions (envy and hatred) and personal interests (thirst for power and money), they grossly distort reality: “Jesus is a sinner, sinners do not perform miracles, which means the one born blind was never blind.” The Pharisees are not guided by reality, but by prejudice formed by pride.
If, instead of making decisions that are consistent with reality, we routinely “rearrange” reality to serve our interests, emotions, or passions, we will never be able to practice prudence. “The darkness of low truths,” says Pushkin, “is dearer to us than the deception that elevates us.” It is difficult to practice prudence when one is accustomed to deceiving oneself. Joseph Brodsky once remarked: “Unbelief is blindness, but more often it is disgusting.” We love our blindness because living like a pig is easier and simpler. Exalting deception and blaming blindness... Pride and flesh - that, in a nutshell, is what interferes with prudence.
Reality is distorted by a manager who raises his voice against employees under the pretext that they will work better if they are afraid of him. Reality is distorted by those who utter such platitudes: “the client is always right”, “everything is relative”, “every opinion is legitimate”, “the majority is always right”, “in politics and business all means are fair”. We may find these untruths convenient, but if we act on them, we will find it very difficult to practice the virtue of prudence.
It takes courage to live the truth and respect reality. I once gave a lecture on European Union law to a group of French school teachers imbued with an anti-Christian, materialistic spirit. I was talking about the principle subsidiarity, i.e. the priority of lower echelons in decision-making, according to which the highest central authority (Brussels) should perform only those tasks that cannot be performed effectively by lower jurisdictions (member countries of the European Union). As soon as I began to explain that the principle of subsidiarity goes back to the social teaching of the Catholic Church, a riot broke out before my eyes. Those gathered could not and did not want to accept facts that did not fit into their atheistic worldview. I could quote to them passages from the district letters of Pope Leo XIII or Pope Pius XI, promulgated long before the establishment of the European Union and defining the principle of subsidiarity, but the audience would not listen to me. Like the scribes and Pharisees who stoned St. Stephen, they “shouted with a loud voice and stopped their ears.”
Overcome your own prejudices. The distortion of reality is the fruit of cowardice, prejudice is the fruit of ignorance. We overcome our prejudices through humility. “One of the main characteristics of authentic leaders,” writes Stephen Covey, “is humility. Leaders take off their glasses and carefully examine the glasses... Where contradictions arise (caused by prejudice or ignorance), they make the necessary adjustments to once again conform to higher wisdom."
One day I was walking through Sinebryuchovsky Park in Helsinki in a long winter coat, lost in my thoughts. A ten-year-old Finnish girl came up to me and asked: “Are you a spy?” I smiled and assured her that I was not a spy. She was obviously relieved. She had a preconception, a preconceived idea based on rumors or on images borrowed from the movies: a tall man, a long coat, an empty city park, autumn leaves - here's a spy for you! She was wrong. Her prejudice led her astray. Nevertheless, the leader was born in her: she humbly put her intuition to the test.
A few years later I had a similar experience in Warsaw. I was walking along the streets of a residential area in the same long winter coat when I was grabbed by Israeli embassy security. I was suspected of terrorism and interrogated by three armed men. Their mistake was rooted in preconceived conclusions: I was walking near the embassy, did not look like a local resident, and was wearing a long coat.
The story with my long-suffering coat does not end there. Once in Moscow I was going to the Orthodox Christmas liturgy in a house church that was located on the top floor of a tall building. I was standing in the elevator in this notorious coat when an imposing man in a Jewish kippah entered the elevator behind me. He looked at me with interest and asked: “Are you Jewish?” I answered no. The elevator went up. He came out on the fifth floor, turned to me and said: “It’s dishonest to hide your nationality!”
Each of us has our own prejudices. Some will see a tall man in a long coat as a spy, others as a terrorist, and still others as a brother by race. Much depends on what books we read and what films we watched. But we are all called, through humility, to correct our ideas.
Don't forget about your mission. The successful fulfillment of our personal or organizational mission should be the main criterion for decision-making, i.e. the primary standard by which alternatives will be judged.
Mother Teresa of Calcutta was deeply aware of her life mission: to be a mother to the poorest, to share their inner loneliness, their sense of abandonment and abandonment. Teresa realized that she was called to testify to the world about God’s immeasurable love for every person. “A beautiful death,” she said, “is when people who lived like animals die like angels - with our love.” To fulfill her mission, Teresa founded a monastic order in 1950. But many of the people around her, “for the sake of efficiency” (so they said), began to pressure her to make decisions according to the rules characteristic of charitable organizations. Teresa boldly faced reality: “The organization I founded is not a charitable institution, not a hospital, but a monastic order! We do not treat people, but die with them. We are mothers, not nurses!” Teresa did not give in, and in just a few decades her congregation became the leading monastic order of the Catholic Church.
A mission without specific goals is fruitless work. Achieving goals that are not related to the mission that unites them is much ado about nothing. If our goal is to become the first in some field, we must ask the question: “Why?” An organization's mission is the contribution it makes to the public good, not its ability to outperform competitors.
Try to anticipate the consequences of your actions. Latin word prudentia(prudence) comes from providentia, which means foresight. Prudence, then, is both insight (seeing reality as it is before we act) and foresight (seeing reality as it will be after our actions).
It happens that we lack the simplest ability to forecast. My friend Tobias, whom I had not seen for 15 years, once visited me in Finland. It was February, and I wanted him to experience all the delights of the northern winter. Together with friends, we rented a small house for the weekend on an island in the archipelago of the Gulf of Finland. It was bitterly cold and the sea was covered with ice, except for a channel cut for the hourly ferry between the island and the mainland.
On Saturday evening we gathered in a traditional Finnish sauna. After the first 30-minute “session,” Tobias and I decided to run across the ice and dive into the channel to cool off. But we did not foresee that a problem would arise: how to get back out of the water onto the ice? There were no stairs, and the ice was slippery. After several unsuccessful attempts to get out of the icy water, we suddenly realized that unless a miracle happened, we would die in a few minutes.
Tobias and I were to pay too great a price for our rashness. At least we were consoled by the fact that the deep night, the cold wind, the moon and millions of stars would accompany us in the last minutes of our earthly existence. But suddenly I noticed that the frosty wind, blowing my wet skin, dried out my hands, and they began to stick to the ice. This gave me the opportunity to put my feet on the ice and be safe. I then reached down and pulled Tobias out of the water.
In trying to anticipate the likely consequences of our actions, personal experience helps us. But if such experience is lacking - as Tobias and I are - we should resort to the experience of others. For example, when Finns ski on frozen lakes, they take an awl with them so that if the ice underneath them breaks, they can stick the awl into the ice and crawl out. Of course, Finns don’t take an awl to the sauna, but if they’re not drunk, they don’t throw themselves into an ice hole without a chance to get out.
Apply the moral law to specific situations. It is not enough to know the Ten Commandments and be able to draw correct conclusions based on them. What is needed here is prudence—practical wisdom. From the commandment “thou shalt not bear false witness,” we can derive as a corollary “thou shalt not slander a competitor.” That's great, but we have to be smart about setting the boundaries of fair competition for ourselves. It follows from the Decalogue's prohibition of theft that fair wages must be paid. Okay, but what is a fair salary in each case? In any case, we must make a judgment based on prudence. Leaders face a plethora of daunting moral and ethical problems whose solutions are rarely found in books. There is no infallible technique that leads to perfection; improvement requires an infinite capacity for creativity, which flows from the virtue of prudence.
Ask for advice. A prudent person is not a know-it-all. The leader recognizes his limitations and selects associates who can challenge him.
The Founding Fathers of the United States “didn’t hire sycophants. George Washington assembled and listened carefully to men, each of whom was far more capable than the president himself whom they faithfully served... But even a few presidents so competent that it was impossible to find men more capable - Jefferson, Lincoln and Theodore Roosevelt - all they selected brilliant personnel.”
A leader does not choose as close associates people who watch which way the wind blows and adapt to it. Instead, they look for employees who will face challenges with courage, resourcefulness, and determination.
Simply sound, objective and disinterested advice is not enough. We need advice from people who know and love us well. “Friend,” says Pieper, “and especially reasonable friend, can help shape his friend's decision. He does this with the power of that love, which turns the friend’s problem into his own, the friend’s “I” into his own (so that this is no longer quite “from the outside”). For by virtue of the unity that is born of love, he acquires the ability to clearly imagine a specific situation calling for a decision - to present it from a true center of responsibility.
The leader feels free to accept or reject the advice he receives. He accepts personal decisions and takes over personal responsibility for them. If things go wrong, he doesn't blame the advisors.
Deliberation is the first step in prudent decision making. Shakespeare's Othello suffers a cruel fate caused by his inability to think and reflect. He “shoots first and asks questions later.”
Solution
After deliberation comes decision. Making a decision means making a choice between alternative possibilities.
Once the choice is made, you must act quickly. Prudence is not only insight and foresight. It's also determination. Prudence encourages prompt and authoritative execution of decisions. French deputy Andre Philippe, who knew Robert Schumann, the political founder of the European Union, said about him: “By temperament, Schumann was a timid person, he often put off solving important issues. But as soon as he understood what his inner voice demanded, he suddenly made the most daring decisions and implemented them; Then he was immune to criticism, attacks and threats."
Prudence and timidity are incompatible things; leaders are not afraid to take risks. “We all learn from mistakes,” writes Peter Drucker. – The better a person is, the more mistakes he will make - because he experiments more than others. I would never appoint a person to a high position who has never made mistakes, and big ones at that. Otherwise, he's probably mediocre. Moreover, without making mistakes, he will not know how to recognize and correct them.”
A prudent decision may turn out to be a mistake, and an unwise decision may lead to success if, in the process of its implementation, new factors come into play that could not be foreseen at the deliberation stage. This is why a leader's ability to act prudently cannot be judged by the results of just some of his decisions. His prudence must be judged on the basis of all the results achieved under his leadership.
The leader carries out his decisions. If a decision is opposed, it does not necessarily mean that the decision was wrong. Quite often this means that the decision was exactly right and needed.
When Teresa of Avila began reforming the Carmelite Order in 1562, very few wanted to be reminded of how God wanted their lives to be. The Carmelites, who rejected her reforms, began a brutal campaign against her. Other monastic orders joined them. She was threatened with the Inquisition. John the Cross, who founded the Discalced Carmelite Order with Teresa, underwent similar trials. For more than nine months he was imprisoned in a cramped, stuffy cell. In the face of persecution, Teresa and John did not retreat. They knew that surgical intervention- an unpleasant thing for everyone. Their persistence brought remarkable results: a few years later their reforms spread throughout Europe and a new order, proclaiming a return to the original ascetic ideals of the Carmelites, was established.
Being and Perception
Our ability to perceive reality and make sound judgments depends on the extent to which we practice a set of virtues, not just the virtue of prudence.
“A virtuous person,” says Aristotle, “judges everything correctly, and the truth is revealed to him in everything: he sees the truth in all individual cases, being, as it were, its measure and norm.” A virtuous person sees all the truth all reality. A proud man, on the contrary, perceives only what flatters his pride; a coward is only that which justifies his inaction; the acquisitive is only that which increases his capital; the voluptuous is only that which gives him pleasure. A sensual person, for example, sees in a woman not a woman - with her spirit, body, dignity - but sex. A person devoid of virtue sees only part of reality - that tiny part that feeds his vice.
The relationship between being (who you are) and perception (what you see) is very deep. We perceive events and people through the prism of our character. By growing in the virtues of heart and will, we improve our ability to perceive reality, i.e. practice the virtue of reason.
By perceiving people through the prism of character, we often project our own shortcomings onto others. If we passionately love power, we will think that the people around us are power-hungry. The advice of St. Augustine is useful here: “Try to acquire those virtues that you think other people lack. Then you will stop seeing their shortcomings, for you yourself will be delivered from them.”
If we have an abundance of virtue, it will be easier for us to see people as they really are - with their strengths and weaknesses.
Virtues enlighten the mind, strengthen the will and purify the heart. They allow us to perceive the world, life events and people as they are, and not as we imagine them to be. Without this objectivity, we cannot make the right decisions.
Objectivity does not mean impartiality. Leaders make objective decisions that are to some extent subjective. Prudent decision making is coupled with preferences. In the same situation, different leaders, all equally prudent, may come to different decisions.
The right decision and the right decision are two different things. What is true is what corresponds reality. What is right is what allows rule(cm. Pitfalls of Normative Ethics, part IV, ch. 3).
J. Pieper, Prudence. New York: Pantheon Books, 1959, p. 37.
O. Thompson, Mass Persuasion in History: A Historical Analysis on the Development of Propaganda Techniques. Edinburgh: Paul Harris Publishing, 1977, p. 132. Cited in D. Anderson, ed., Decadence, op. cit., p. 106.
Acts 7:57.
S. Covey, Principle-Centered Leadership. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992, p. 20.
J. O'Toole, op. cit., p. thirty.
J. Pieper, op. cit., p. 55.
See R. Lejeune, op. cit., Prologue 2.
P. Drucker, The Practice of Management, 1954, p. 145.
Aristotle, Nikomakhova ethics, Book III, 4.
St. Augustine, Enarrationes in psalmos, 30, 2, 7 (PL 36, 243).
In this article we want to explore the fundamental virtue of Christian ethics, LOVE, the way it is reflected in the works of the great fathers of the Church. Therefore, we considered it necessary to consider a sufficient number of texts to present the teaching of the Holy Fathers on the virtue of love. The Holy Fathers (Basily the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, John Chrysostom, Maximus the Confessor) were chosen on the basis of their authority and the degree of influence they exerted on subsequent writers, as well as on the basis of their increased interest in ethical issues.
The article contains a lengthy introduction in which the basic concepts of Christian ethics are given and its main components are given. We will talk about the healing nature of Christian ethics, the meaning and reception of grace by man, the increasing role of the body within Christian anthropology with a parallel denial of the ontological essence of evil, as well as the function of will and freedom on the path to deification.
In the main part of the article we will examine the works of the holy fathers and present their most significant words about love, indicating the Christ-centric and ecclesiastical nature of all virtues. In addition, the connection of love with faith and hope becomes obvious, and the unity of all virtues in Christian ethics is confirmed.
Introduction
First of all, since we are talking about virtue, it is necessary to emphasize that in all patristic literature we will not find any single system of Christian ethics. This is due to the general conviction that Christian ethics cannot be described in terms of closed systems and objective truths. It represents life “in Christ” and, as a result, cannot be limited by any complete conceptual schemes. Moreover, summing up much of the modern theological bibliography concerning Christian ethics, we come to the conclusion that this ethics has a healing character because sin is interpreted as a disease of human nature, and the Church, in turn, is a “healer of souls and bodies.” It becomes obvious that human nature reveals the ability to save and heal if, having demonstrated the will, a person takes the path of ascetic struggle. Man must trust in faith to the will of the Holy Spirit, for virtues are inherent in us initially and are gifts of the Holy Spirit [“The separation of Christian ethical principles from the integral mystery of life in Christ is the most common erroneous understanding of Christianity and a return to the sphere of law. The commandments of Christianity are unthinkable in the absence of a deep understanding of the meaning of new life in Christ. Christian ethics does not exist without Christ and his grace. Christian virtues are achieved not through adherence to objective moral principles, but through a living connection and communication with God.”] . It is also necessary to mention some “constants” of Christian ethics associated with Christian anthropology, such as, for example, the difference between body and flesh, where the first is neutral, from an ethical point of view, and the second is sinful [“The flesh refers to man’s sinful wills, which extend to his spiritual nature.”] . In addition, it must be said that the tripartite division of the soul, as well as the description of the four primary, classical virtues found in some texts, are not given in line with Plato’s theory. It is known that Christianity does not downgrade the role of the body, since the Christian doctrine of the resurrection of souls and bodies is fundamentally different from Plato’s immortality of the soul. Returning to the conversation about the ethical views of the Fathers of the Church, we note that the common place of patristic anthropology is the fault of the human will, but not human nature, in committing evil. Thus, starting with examples of the texts of Basil the Great, we are talking about innate virtue, which, however, suffered after the Fall, but was not completely destroyed. As a result, evil is equated with disease [“And in us there are natural virtues, with which the soul has an affinity not by human teaching, but by nature itself. No science teaches us to hate illness, but we ourselves have an aversion to everything that causes us grief: so in the soul there is some kind of deviation from evil acquired not by teaching. All evil is a mental illness, but virtue corresponds to health.”“Conversations on the Six Days”]. The acquisition of virtues is a mirror showing the restoration of the fallen nature of man. They are inherent in his nature, in contrast to atrocities and vices that contradict this nature [The similarity between Stoic and Christian terminology is only superficial. According to the Stoics, natural virtues such as health and unnatural evils such as disease are ethically neutral. There is another concept used by the Stoics, “by nature,” associated with the all-encompassing nature, which is the essential basis of everything, with which man must be in harmony. Only in this way can a person fulfill his ontological destiny. Man's compliance with the dictates of Nature, the all-encompassing Word, is the basis of Stoic ethics, expressed in “living according to nature,” which corresponds to happiness in Stoic philosophy.] . The Holy Fathers unanimously note that victory over passions is achieved exclusively through the acquisition of virtue. Every passion is crushed and expelled from the soul only by the corresponding virtue. However, the virtues do not unite the soul with God, but only make it receptive and prepare it for this union. Unity is the result of man's acceptance of Divine grace, exercised freely.
Part 1
Speaking about virtue, Basil the Great accepts the fact that the criterion for choosing virtue and aversion from evil is inherent in the very essence of man [“Since we have some kind of natural judgment seat in which we distinguish between good and evil, then when choosing what to do, it is necessary for us to form correct judgments about things and, like a judge who impartially and with all fairness gives a verdict to the litigants, trust in virtue and condemn vice." Saint Basil the Great "Conversation 12. At the beginning of the book of Proverbs"]. This also includes classical education, which prepares virtue, with the condition that it will be selective in nature. [“You must love this and strive for it with all your might, and what does not go into it, then despise it as worthless.” Saint Basil the Great “To young men on how to use pagan writings”]. Characteristic of life in Christ, purification and liberation from passions as the sinful side of man and observance of the commandments, embodying man’s desire for righteousness, represent two phases of one path, which in the Orthodox tradition is called asceticism .
Gregory of Nyssa, sharing the anthropological views of Basil the Great, says that no evil was created by God, and virtues help a person become like God [“The life of people who love virtue and decide to live wisely is determined by good laws and regulations; in them, as can be seen, the Legislator’s thought has two main goals in mind: one is to prohibit what is forbidden, the other is to excite to do what is good. For no other way can anyone succeed in a well-ordered and chaste life than by running away as much as he can from evil and striving after virtue, as a son runs after his mother.” Gregory of Nyssa “Against the usurers.”]. The root cause of evil is in the desires and will of man [“...the inclination towards evil does not come from outside, due to some compelling necessity; but together with the consent to evil, evil itself is formed, then coming into being when we choose it; in itself, in its own independence, outside of arbitrariness, evil is nowhere found.” Gregory of Nyssa “Conversations on the Beatitudes. Word 5"].
Moreover, for John Chrysostom virtue is a natural and healthy state of mind : “Do you see that virtue is natural, but evil is contrary to nature, like health and illness? What is the need for lies and oaths? None, because we do it not out of coercion, but of our own free will. We don't believe it, they say. We don’t believe it because we don’t want to.”. Virtue brings good fruits to a person , since it always has an eschatological perspective.
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From the writings of the holy fathers it follows that the beginning of the path to God is associated with two sides of the spiritual struggle: liberation from passions, leading to purification, and the acquisition of virtues, which leads to the extreme level of a person’s holy aspirations, deification. In Maximus the Confessor, Christ is the “model” and the “life principle.” In addition, it talks about virtues that help eradicate corresponding passions [“What is also the method of destroying each of the listed passions, and by what deeds, words or thoughts the soul is freed from them and removes filth from its conscience? By contrasting which passion with which virtue, it will achieve victory, so as to drive away the evil demon, completely destroying along with it the very movement of passion?” The acquisition of virtue is not some kind of independent activity, but cooperation with Divine grace [“...it is God who accomplishes in us, as in [His] instruments, all work and contemplation, all virtue and knowledge, all victory and wisdom, all goodness and truth; We participate in this only through our voluntary disposition, desiring good.” Maximus the Confessor “Questions to Thalassius.”].
Saint Maximus the Confessor comes to the fundamental thesis of Orthodox anthropology, according to which evil is groundless because it does not belong to human nature, but contradicts it. But the above can be understood as challenging the goodness of God the Creator [“Nothing corresponding to nature is unclean, because it owes its existence to the Divine Cause.”] , who made everything “very good.” Being associated with ancient aretology (the doctrine of virtue), Maximus the Confessor speaks about theoretical and practical virtue, about the powers of the soul, which are word, anger and desire.
Saint Maximus the Confessor, the most important figure in Christian philosophy of the early Byzantine period, believes free will is the core of human existence. “Deprive us of freedom, and we will cease to be the image of God and a rational, thinking soul.” In addition, he develops the ideas of Plato's aretology and agrees that "the cardinal virtues - prudence, courage, moderation, justice - are the image of heavenly things."
As stated above, the holy fathers consider sin to be something secondary and unnatural, while the path of virtue is a natural state of the soul. John of Damascus says that, Unlike evil, the acquisition of virtue is natural for a person, since it is inherent in him by the Creator [“The habit of virtue, having become akin to the soul and having acquired God as an assistant, becomes reliable and indestructible. Courage, reason, prudence and justice are firm only when they are truly properties of the soul, if they have penetrated into its depths. For if qualities, not being innate to us, but coming from outside, having become a habit, become indestructible, then even more so the virtue for which we are called to life by the Creator and supported by Him in man, having become a habit through our zeal, is firmly rooted in the soul ours." Venerable John of Damascus “A soulful story about the life of Barlaam and Joasaph”]. The saint also expresses the opinion that without the foundation of the four cardinal virtues, the others cannot be acquired [“First of all, we call the most important four spiritual virtues, that is, wisdom, courage, chastity and truth. From these other spiritual virtues are born: faith, hope, love, prayer, humility.” John of Damascus “A Word that is beneficial to the soul and worthy of praise on the passions and virtues”]. In addition, John of Damascus gives lists of mental and physical virtues and speaks at length and in detail about them.
Having outlined the points of view of the holy fathers regarding the foundations of Christian ethics, we move on to consider the concepts of the virtue of love in their works. It will be important to note here that the thoughts of the holy fathers about the virtue of love are not limited to the above statements. This is only a fragmentary presentation of their views, which must be supplemented by an analysis of their other works in order for our research to acquire integrity and completeness.
Part 2
According to Saint Basil the Great, love is the pinnacle of all virtues . He repeatedly refers to the “hymn of love” of the Apostle Paul, which testifies to the failure of the law, since the fullness of the law is love [“It seems that the whole teaching about sacrifices and burnt offerings is contained in the teaching about mercy and love, because the whole law is briefly expressed in the words: “You shall love your true self as yourself” (Matthew 19:19).” Basil the Great “Interpretation of the Book of the Prophet Isaiah”] which has incomparably greater value than other virtues. The powers of the soul come from God. Whether they are good or evil depends on their application, therefore, both love and hatred can be for the benefit of the human soul [“For the benefit of the rational soul, God has given all abilities, both the ability to love and the ability to hate, so that, guided by reason, we may love virtue and hate vice.”. Basil the Great Discourse on the first part of the first psalm].
Love, both for God and for neighbor, is not the result of training, but was originally given as an ability to human nature : “Love for God is not something acquired through teaching. For it was not another who taught us to admire the light, to be attached to life, nor another who taught us to love our parents and educators. So, or even more, it is impossible to learn the love of God from the outside, but along with the structure of a living being, I mean a person, a certain innate desire is implanted in us, which itself contains an impulse to communicate love.”
Love for God is a consequence of undivided love for neighbor which becomes an imitation and manifestation of the essence of God as love for all [“We should love the Lord God with all the forces existing in us, love our neighbors and enemies in order to become perfect, imitating the goodness of our heavenly Father, whose sun rises both for the wicked and for the righteous; wasting the power of your love on something else is unforgivable.”. Basil the Great “Rules Set forth in Questions and Answers”], as well as proof of genuine adherence to the teachings of Christ [“A new commandment I give to you, that you love one another” (John 13:34). And wanting to awaken your soul to this commandment, as proof of who His disciple is, he demanded not extraordinary signs and wonders (although in the Holy Spirit he gave power for this too), but what does he say? “By this everyone will know that you are My disciples, if you have love one another” (John 13:35).” Basil the Great “Rules set out at length in questions and answers.” “They taught all nations, baptizing them in the Name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, teaching them to keep everything that we were commanded to you. Those who keep them showed His love and were worthy to remain in it, as it is written. Those who did not keep, choosing the opposite, were put to shame. For the Lord says: “He who does not love me does not keep my words. He who has my commandments and keeps them is the one who loves me.”"On Faith"] who left us the commandment of love [“Our Lord Jesus Christ left us a commandment to love one another as He loved us, and the Apostle Paul taught us to treat one another with love, as evidence of your piety in Christ.”“On Baptism”].
Basil the Great especially emphasizes the connection and interaction that exists between keeping the commandments and putting love into practice: “We will find love for God only by keeping the commandments of the Lord. Through this, love for God will be long-lasting and unceasing.” The social orientation of Basil the Great’s thought becomes obvious, since love for God does not exist without love for one’s neighbor [“For I have heard from God that those who love one another are recognized as His disciples. I leave peace with you, I give you my peace."] , which eliminates escape from reality.
In addition, Basil the Great's pronounced social interest is manifested in his condemnation of the acquisition of wealth, which implies a ruthless attitude towards one's neighbor and a lack of love: “He who loves his neighbor as himself has nothing in excess of his neighbor. But you find yourself having “great acquisitions.” Where did you get this from? Isn’t it clear from this that you prefer your own pleasure to easing the lot of many? That's why the more wealth you have, the less love you have ».
Besides, accumulation of material wealth is interpreted primarily as idolatry , because it perverts the purpose and object of love: “It is deceitful to love silver as you should love the Lord God, with all your heart, with all your soul and with all your mind. He who does this serves mammon instead of God, replacing the measure of love due to God with silver.”
To all other, the consequence of putting love into practice is not only the absence of condemnation of one’s neighbor, but also deep sadness about his shortcomings and, conversely, experiencing true joy about his spiritual achievements [“In the love of Christ we must grieve and lament over our brother’s shortcomings, but rejoice in his success. One should not look indifferently at those who sin or remain silent about them.” Basil the Great "On perfection in monastic life"] . However, the source of true joy and love is not the personal achievements of man and the passive experience of the heavenly state, but the participation in the life of grace of those who strive for it and seek it: “A soul filled with the fruits of the Spirit (love, joy, peace, long-suffering, goodness) is attacked by alien thoughts that destroy everything previously achieved.”.
Finally, love, which is expressed in concrete actions, is always complemented by true faith. Otherwise, life becomes flawed to the extent that it is devoid of both love and true faith, as previously noted by the Apostle Paul [“There is constant Divine and heavenly joy in the righteous, because the Spirit undoubtedly dwells in him; The first fruit of the spirit is love, joy, peace (cf. Gal. 5:22). Therefore, rejoice in the righteousness of the Lord.” Basil the Great "Discourse on the first part of the first psalm"].
« The severity of life, not enlightened by faith in God, is not useful in itself , and right faith without good works is not able to place us before the Lord, but what must be both together May the man of God be perfect (cf. 2 Tim. 3:17) and may our life not be ruined by lack of anything, because faith saves us, as the Apostle says, and is aided by love.”(Gal. 5:6). (Basily the Great “To the Monastics”).
According to Gregory of Nyssa, love is an amazing virtue that incorporates faith, hope and patience: “...he who has achieved the perfection of love with the prototype of perfection has all the types of virtues associated with it. Does faith save, are we saved by hope, do we expect grace from patience - “love embraces all things, all things hope, all things endure.”(1 Cor. 13:7) [“He who has achieved the perfection of love with the prototype of perfection has all the types of virtues associated with it. Whether faith saves, whether we are saved by hope, whether we expect grace from patience - “love has faith in all things, all things hope, all things endure” (1 Cor. 13:7), as the Apostle says. Gregory of Nyssa “Word on the day of memory of Basil the Great, brother”].
Love and observance of the commandments of Christ is the right path leading to the “promised land.” Christ is a model of love and humility. Having become man for the sake of saving people, He calls them to take the path leading to the Kingdom of Heaven to the extent that they love God and neighbor [“Knowing the fruits of humility and the harm of pride, imitate the Lord, loving each other, being kind to each other, do not fear death or any other punishment. “The path in which God walked among us is the way to walk towards God, with one body and one soul, heading towards the heavenly calling, loving God and each other.” Gregory of Nyssa “On the goal [of life] according to God and on true asceticism”].
Nikolaos Mitropoulos, Ph.D.
Translation from Modern Greek: Editorial “Pemptousia”
PRUDENCE– a quality of character, a principle of action that orients a person (group) towards achieving maximum personal good (happiness).
According to Aristotle, the main task of the prudent (prudent) is to make the right decisions regarding the good and benefit for oneself as a whole - for a good life. With the help of prudence, a person is able to choose the right means for this purpose in a particular situation and implement it in action. Prudence differs from scientific knowledge and comprehension with the help of reason of the most valuable things by their nature in that it is connected with human good and is aimed at making the right decisions for its implementation. Aristotle emphasizes that to be prudent means not just to know, but to be able to act in accordance with knowledge. If scientific and philosophical knowledge deals with extremely general definitions that do not allow justification, then prudence presupposes knowledge not only of the general, but even to a greater extent of the particular, since it deals with making decisions and performing actions in specific (private) circumstances. And a prudent person, as a person capable of making decisions, knows how to achieve the highest possible benefit in a specific action. If wisdom is gained through the mind, then prudence is gained through experience and a special feeling similar to conviction. The originality of the prudence of statesmen in Aristotle’s interpretation lies in the direction of their decisions and actions for the benefit of the state. The importance of prudence in state affairs, according to Aristotle, lies in the fact that the own good of citizens is impossible regardless of the economy and structure of the state.
Thomas Aquinas, drawing on the ideas of Aristotle and other predecessors in the Greco-Roman and Judeo-Christian traditions, developed the concept of prudence as one of the cardinal virtues, along with moderation, courage and justice. He defined prudence as correct reasoning applied to action, or as wisdom in human affairs. Prudence is manifested in the choice of specific actions as a means to approach the final goal of bliss, expressing the goodness of the divine world order. The highest transcendental goal in Thomas's concept determines the positive moral value of prudence. He distinguishes true prudence from false prudence, which consists in choosing adequate means for an immoral end, and from imperfect prudence, which for one reason or another lacks completeness. Thomas emphasizes that true prudence consists in a stable habit of acting in accordance with virtue and involves doing the right things, for the right reasons, at the right time. This requires intelligence, the ability to understand a specific situation, memory, the ability to accept advice, experience, and the ability to foresee the consequences of one’s actions.
Since modern times, in philosophy and in everyday consciousness, the concept of personal good has lost the connection with the highest good, necessary for ancient and medieval culture. Therefore, it is accepted that prudence, as the ability and desire to pursue personal or group interests and thereby achieve long-term benefits and well-being, may be neutral from a moral point of view, but may also be in conflict with it. Thus, A. Smith describes two types of prudence. Prudence of the first type is aimed at achieving a “calm and secure position.” A prudent person in this sense is not characterized by enterprise, passion, or enthusiasm. He is rather prudent, thrifty, invariably temperate, tirelessly hardworking, calmly benevolent, etc. Such prudence, Smith believes, is commendable, but it can only arouse cold respect, and will never arouse either admiration or love. Prudence of the second type belongs to the more valuable, admirable virtues. His dignity is determined by a purpose higher than health, condition, reputation. Great commanders, public figures, and legislators are prudent in this sense. Such prudence in the past was characteristic of the academic sage or peripatetic. It is associated with valor, with love of humanity, “with a sacred respect for justice,” with heroism, and involves “talent and the happy ability to act in all situations in the best possible way,” as well as the combination of “an excellent head with an excellent heart.” Subsequently, I. Kant separated prudence from morality. He showed that the moral law is not determined by any goal external to it. Prudence is aimed at the natural goal - happiness, and a prudent act is only a means to it.
Attempts to rehabilitate prudence and return it to the sphere of morality were made in utilitarianism ( see also section UTILITARIANISM in the article JUSTICE). For example, Henry Sidgwick considered prudence to be one of the key (along with justice and benevolence) principles of morality. He formulated this principle in the form of a requirement to care equally for all parts of one's life and not to prefer the immediate good to the greater good that can only be achieved in the future. In modern philosophy, attempts to restore the moral status of prudence are made within the framework of virtue ethics. The main effort is aimed at criticizing the common ideas in philosophy and everyday consciousness about prudence as selfish pursuit of one’s own interests, certainly to the detriment of the interests of other people. The rehabilitation of prudence in modern moral philosophy also involves the restoration of its meaning as practical wisdom, that is, as the ability to act in the best way in specific circumstances. In the best possible way means focusing, if not on a morally sublime, then at least on a morally justified goal.
Olga Artemyeva
The word prudence itself contains components that define it. Prudence- a combination of reason with a good purpose. It implies a person’s possession of character qualities, as well as actions that will lead him to achieve his maximum personal good. In other words, this is the path to happiness. Prudence, as a moral category, implies that a person has such qualities as wisdom and prudence and provides for deep consideration of one’s actions before they are committed.
Prudence requires a person to use discretion, primarily in words and actions. It is not for nothing that the human tongue is considered the most serious weapon. A person brings a lot of trouble to himself and others through careless words or their incorrect interpretation. In addition to prudence, wisdom and useful caution are also required here. First of all, a person must think through the consequences of his words and actions. Unverified information can bring harm to another person and a feeling of guilt to the one who disseminated it. Actions that are guided by emotions, thoughtless and unwise can destroy the life of the person himself and his environment. Many world religions require wisdom from a person in deeds and actions. And since the highest wisdom belongs to God, acting according to wisdom means conformity with God’s principles.
Prudence belongs to the internal category and is the pinnacle of the formation of moral qualities in a person. To achieve prudence, you need to constantly work on yourself, acquire the necessary knowledge about the world around you and treat other people kindly. If you follow the Christian tradition, then showing prudence means fulfilling 2 basic commandments: to love God and to love people.
Prudence is associated with the presence of such a quality as fortitude. Wrong thoughts, motivations, motives can lead to wrong actions. Perseverance in exercising prudence allows you to avoid actions that are undesirable for yourself and others. Perseverance is also needed when in our contradictory world a person decides to live according to prudence.
Of course, prudence cannot but be associated with the category of good. It carries the right positive message, which means it ultimately brings good to the person himself and the people around him.
A person who acts with good reason and prudence and does good deeds is the moral ideal to which society strives. Such a person has a calm conscience and complete moral satisfaction from harmony with himself and the world around him. In other words, such a person is happy. Isn’t this the highest goal of any person’s life?
In ethics, prudence is one of the main categories of virtue.
Prudence is also characterized by extremes, and it no less needs moderation than frivolity.
Of all the charms of a woman, prudence is preferable.
Recklessness is characteristic of a blooming age, prudence is characteristic of an aging age.
Prudence consists in being able to foresee what is advantageous for oneself and avoid what is disadvantageous.
Love, love, when you take possession of us, we can say: Forgive me, prudence!
Often a person is too prudent to be great. It takes a little fanaticism to achieve fame both in literature and in government affairs.
Fascinating aphorisms about prudence
The prudent man sees the trouble and takes refuge; and the inexperienced go ahead and are punished.
No mortal is prudent every hour.
Unspeakable Fascinating Aphorisms on Prudence
Prudence is a huge stone that we constantly roll upward and which constantly falls back on our heads.
A young man should be prudent without trying to appear so; an old man should seem prudent, even if he wasn’t.
You have to do stupid things wisely!
Prudence presupposes that one's own benefit is not considered the goal of moral behavior, although it may be its consequence.
Education should be based on two foundations - morality and prudence: the first supports virtue, the second protects from other people's vices. If only morality turns out to be a support, you will raise only simpletons or martyrs; if only prudence - only prudent egoists.
“Chance” and “fate” are just empty words: persistent prudence is the fate of man.
Prudence must be something between licentiousness and insensibility.
Prudence consists in not destroying the goodwill of others and maintaining it for its own sake.
If people entered into only sensible marriages, what damage would it do to the growth of population on earth!
The art of starting. Stupidity acts at random; all fools are brave. In their simplicity, at the beginning of a business they do not foresee obstacles, but in the end they do not grieve over failures. Prudence approaches the task with caution, its scouts, Foresight and Reflection, scout the path in order to move unhindered.
Candid, fascinating aphorisms about prudence
Prudence is the best trait of courage.
Prudence is the surest defense against the mistakes of life.
There must be moderation in everything. And in prudence, perhaps even more than in frivolity!
Avoiding obligations is one of the first principles of prudence. Great abilities set themselves great and distant goals; the path to them is long, and people often get stuck halfway, taking on the main thing too late. It is easier to avoid obligations than to come out of them with honor.
For everything in life you have to pay. Even for your own prudence.
Weapons have little value outside the country if there is no prudence at home.
Particular prudence also consists in performing actions not out of the mere desire to do them, but, on the contrary, at the behest of duty and common sense.
If you can't do the smart thing, do the right thing.
Any muzzle of a prudent style gives me an unpleasant feeling.
I don't really like to see prudence attached to the green bud of youth; it's like ivy entwining a bush and preventing its development.
You don’t have to be ignorant, but sometimes it’s not bad to pretend to be ignorant. There is no point in being wise with a fool, or prudent with a madman; Speak to everyone in their language.
You don't always have to make jokes. Prudence is recognized in seriousness; it is valued higher than wit. He who always makes jokes is an empty person.
Mini fascinating aphorisms about prudence
Punishment makes a smart person smarter, and a stupid person becomes stupid.
Prudence, in my opinion, is significantly overrated, whereas it is just prudence that has been shaken out of its essence.
The beginning of everything is prudence... From prudence all other virtues originate; it teaches that one cannot live pleasantly without living wisely and justly, and conversely, one cannot live intelligently, morally and justly without living pleasantly.
Reason without prudence is double.
The only reasonable revenge for meanness is to refrain from retaliatory meanness.
It is when we rely on God that God relies on our prudence.
It is not for nothing that rage and prudence are depicted in the form of a youth and an old man. The young man is ready to pull out the tail of a wild horse with his hands and falls, defeated, to the ground. And the old man will slowly shorten the horse’s tail, hair by hair.
Common prudence is sometimes very dangerous: it does not allow bold assumptions.
Prudence and love are not made for each other: as love increases, prudence decreases.
A frivolous person gets into trouble because of his own carelessness and recklessness, a prudent person - because of other people's envy and meanness.
Prudence is also an ideal.
Solid, fascinating aphorisms about prudence/
Always be on guard - against the ignorant, stubborn, arrogant, against all kinds of ignoramuses. There are many of them in the world; prudence is not to meet them.
Acting when you doubt the wisdom of an action is dangerous; it is better to refrain. Prudence does not allow uncertainty; it always walks in the midday light of reason.
Prudence does not allow uncertainty; it always walks in the midday light of reason.
Whenever prudence says, "Don't do this, it will be misinterpreted," I always act contrary to it.
He is prudent who does not grieve about what he does not have, and, on the contrary, is glad about what he has.
Prudence enlightens, but passion blinds.
There are actions that we realize many years later: let's call it belated prudence.
A prudent person should try everything before resorting to weapons.
There are often times in life when it is smart not to be too smart.
Self-denial is not a virtue; this is simply the effect of prudence on meanness.
Do not suffer from the disease of fools. The wise often suffer from a lack of prudence. Fools, on the contrary, have an excess of prudence.
Let us take revenge on our ill-wishers with prudence!
Every prudent man acts with knowledge, but a fool displays his stupidity.