The fusion reaction is as follows: two or more atomic nuclei are taken and, using a certain force, brought together so close that the forces acting at such distances prevail over the forces of Coulomb repulsion between equally charged nuclei, resulting in the formation of a new nucleus. It will have a slightly smaller mass than the sum of the masses of the original nuclei, and the difference becomes the energy that is released during the reaction. The amount of energy released is described by the well-known formula E=mc². Lighter atomic nuclei are easier to bring together to the desired distance, so hydrogen - the most abundant element in the Universe - is the best fuel for the fusion reaction.
It has been found that a mixture of two isotopes of hydrogen, deuterium and tritium, requires the least amount of energy for the fusion reaction compared to the energy released during the reaction. However, although deuterium-tritium (D-T) is the subject of most fusion research, it is by no means the only potential fuel. Other mixtures may be easier to produce; their reaction can be more reliably controlled, or, more importantly, produce fewer neutrons. Of particular interest are the so-called “Neutronless” reactions, since the successful industrial use of such fuel will mean the absence of long-term radioactive contamination of the materials and reactor design, which, in turn, could have a positive impact on public opinion and the overall cost of operating the reactor, significantly reducing the costs of its decommissioning. The problem remains that synthesis reactions using alternative fuels are much more difficult to maintain because D-T reaction is considered only a necessary first step.
Scheme of the deuterium-tritium reaction
Controlled fusion can use different types of fusion reactions depending on the type of fuel used.
Deuterium + tritium reaction (D-T fuel)
The most easily feasible reaction is deuterium + tritium:
2 H + 3 H = 4 He + n at an energy output of 17.6 MeV (megaelectronvolt)
This reaction is most easily feasible from the point of view modern technologies, gives a significant energy output, fuel components are cheap. Its disadvantage is the release of unwanted neutron radiation.
Two nuclei: deuterium and tritium fuse to form a helium nucleus (alpha particle) and a high-energy neutron.
²H + ³He = 4 He + . with an energy output of 18.4 MeV
The conditions for achieving it are much more complicated. Helium-3 is also a rare and extremely expensive isotope. It is not currently produced on an industrial scale. However, it can be obtained from tritium, which is produced in turn at nuclear power plants.
The complexity of carrying out a thermonuclear reaction can be characterized by the triple product nTt (density by temperature by confinement time). By this parameter, the D-3He reaction is approximately 100 times more complex than the D-T reaction.
Reaction between deuterium nuclei (D-D, monopropellant)
Reactions between deuterium nuclei are also possible, they are a little more difficult than reactions involving helium-3:
As a result, in addition to the main reaction in DD plasma, the following also occurs:
These reactions proceed slowly in parallel with the deuterium + helium-3 reaction, and the tritium and helium-3 formed during them are likely to immediately react with deuterium.
Other types of reactions
Some other types of reactions are also possible. The choice of fuel depends on many factors - its availability and low cost, energy output, ease of achieving the conditions required for the thermonuclear fusion reaction (primarily temperature), the necessary design characteristics of the reactor, etc.
"Neutronless" reactions
The most promising are the so-called. “neutron-free” reactions, since the neutron flux generated by thermonuclear fusion (for example, in the deuterium-tritium reaction) carries away a significant part of the power and generates induced radioactivity in the reactor design. The deuterium-helium-3 reaction is promising due to the lack of neutron yield.
Conditions
Nuclear reaction of lithium-6 with deuterium 6 Li(d,α)α
TCB is possible if two criteria are met simultaneously:
- Plasma temperature:
- Compliance with Lawson's criterion:
where is the density of high-temperature plasma, is the plasma retention time in the system.
It is on the value of these two criteria that the rate of occurrence of a particular thermonuclear reaction mainly depends.
At present, controlled thermonuclear fusion has not yet been carried out on an industrial scale. Construction of the international research reactor ITER is in its early stages.
Fusion energy and helium-3
Helium-3 reserves on Earth range from 500 kg to 1 ton, but on the Moon it is found in significant quantities: up to 10 million tons (according to minimum estimates - 500 thousand tons). Currently, a controlled thermonuclear reaction is carried out by the synthesis of deuterium ²H and tritium ³H with the release of helium-4 4 He and the “fast” neutron n:
However, the majority (more than 80%) of the released kinetic energy comes from the neutron. As a result of collisions of fragments with other atoms, this energy is converted into thermal energy. In addition, fast neutrons create significant amounts of radioactive waste. In contrast, the synthesis of deuterium and helium-3³He does not produce (almost) radioactive products:
Where p is proton
This allows the use of simpler and efficient systems transformations of the kinetic fusion reaction, such as a magnetohydrodynamic generator.
Reactor designs
Two are being considered circuit diagrams implementation of controlled thermonuclear fusion.
Research on the first type of thermonuclear reactor is significantly more developed than on the second. In nuclear physics, when studying thermonuclear fusion, a magnetic trap is used to contain plasma in a certain volume. The magnetic trap is designed to keep the plasma from contact with the elements of the thermonuclear reactor, i.e. used primarily as a heat insulator. The principle of confinement is based on the interaction of charged particles with a magnetic field, namely on the rotation of charged particles around magnetic field lines. Unfortunately, magnetized plasma is very unstable and tends to leave the magnetic field. Therefore, to create an effective magnetic trap, the most powerful electromagnets are used, consuming a huge amount of energy.
It is possible to reduce the size of a fusion reactor if it uses three methods of creating a fusion reaction simultaneously.
A. Inertial synthesis. Irradiate tiny capsules of deuterium-tritium fuel with a 500 trillion-watt laser:5. 10^14 W. This gigantic, very brief 10^-8 sec laser pulse causes the fuel capsules to explode, resulting in the birth of a mini-star for a split second. But a thermonuclear reaction cannot be achieved on it.
B. Simultaneously use the Z-machine with the Tokamak.
The Z-Machine operates differently than a laser. It passes through a web of tiny wires surrounding the fuel capsule a charge with a power of half a trillion watts 5.10^11 watts.
Next, approximately the same thing happens as with the laser: as a result of the Z-impact, a star is formed. During tests on the Z-Machine, it was already possible to launch a fusion reaction. http://www.sandia.gov/media/z290.htm Cover the capsules with silver and connect them with a silver or graphite thread. The ignition process looks like this: Shoot a filament (attached to a group of silver balls containing a mixture of deuterium and tritium) into a vacuum chamber. During a breakdown (discharge), form a lightning channel through them and supply current through the plasma. Simultaneously irradiate capsules and plasma laser radiation. And at the same time or earlier turn on the Tokamak. use three plasma heating processes simultaneously. That is, place the Z-machine and laser heating together inside the Tokamak. It may be possible to create an oscillatory circuit from Tokamak coils and organize resonance. Then it would work in an economical oscillatory mode.
Fuel cycle
First generation reactors will most likely run on a mixture of deuterium and tritium. Neutrons that appear during the reaction will be absorbed by the reactor protection, and the generated heat will be used to heat the coolant in the heat exchanger, and this energy, in turn, will be used to rotate the generator.
. .The reaction with Li6 is exothermic, providing little energy for the reactor. The reaction with Li7 is endothermic - but does not consume neutrons. At least some reactions of Li7 are necessary to replace neutrons lost in reactions with other elements. Most reactor designs use natural mixtures of lithium isotopes.
This fuel has a number of disadvantages:
The reaction produces a significant number of neutrons, which activate (radioactively contaminate) the reactor and heat exchanger. Measures are also required to protect against a possible source of radioactive tritium.
Only about 20% of fusion energy is in the form of charged particles (the rest are neutrons), which limits the ability to directly convert fusion energy into electricity. Using D-T the reaction depends on the available lithium reserves, which are significantly less than the deuterium reserves. Neutron irradiation during D-T time The reaction was so significant that after the first series of tests at JET, the largest reactor to date using this fuel, the reactor became so radioactive that a robotic remote maintenance system had to be added to complete the annual test cycle.
There are, in theory, alternative types of fuel that do not have these disadvantages. But their use is hampered by a fundamental physical limitation. To obtain sufficient energy from the fusion reaction, it is necessary to maintain a sufficiently dense plasma at the fusion temperature (10 8 K) for a certain time. This fundamental aspect of fusion is described by the product of the plasma density, n, and the heated plasma holding time, τ, required to reach the equilibrium point. The product, nτ, depends on the type of fuel and is a function of the plasma temperature. Of all types of fuel, the deuterium-tritium mixture requires the lowest nτ value by at least an order of magnitude, and the lowest reaction temperature by at least 5 times. Thus, the D-T reaction is a necessary first step, but the use of other fuels remains an important research goal.
Fusion reaction as an industrial source of electricity
Fusion energy is considered by many researchers as a "natural" energy source in the long term. Proponents of the commercial use of fusion reactors for electricity production cite the following arguments in their favor:
- Virtually inexhaustible fuel reserves (hydrogen)
- Fuel can be extracted from sea water on any coast of the world, which makes it impossible for one or a group of countries to monopolize fuel
- Impossibility of an uncontrolled fusion reaction
- No combustion products
- There is no need to use materials that can be used to produce nuclear weapons, thus eliminating cases of sabotage and terrorism
- Compared to nuclear reactors, negligible amounts of radioactive waste are produced with a short half-life.
- A thimble filled with deuterium is estimated to produce energy equivalent to 20 tons of coal. A medium-sized lake can provide any country with energy for hundreds of years. However, it should be noted that existing research reactors are designed to achieve a direct deuterium-tritium (DT) reaction, the fuel cycle of which requires the use of lithium to produce tritium, while claims of inexhaustible energy refer to the use of deuterium-deuterium (DD) reaction in the second generation of reactors.
- Just like the fission reaction, the fusion reaction does not produce atmospheric carbon dioxide emissions, which is a major contributor to global warming. This is a significant advantage, since the use of fossil fuels to produce electricity results in, for example, the US producing 29 kg of CO 2 (one of the main gases that can be considered a cause of global warming) per US resident per day.
Cost of electricity compared to traditional sources
Critics point out that the economic feasibility of using nuclear fusion to produce electricity remains an open question. The same study commissioned by the British Parliament's Office of Science and Technology Records indicates that the cost of producing electricity using a fusion reactor is likely to be at the higher end of the cost spectrum of conventional energy sources. Much will depend on future technology, market structure and regulation. The cost of electricity directly depends on the efficiency of use, the duration of operation and the cost of reactor decommissioning. Critics of the commercial use of nuclear fusion energy deny that hydrocarbon fuels are heavily subsidized by the government, both directly and indirectly, such as through the use of the military to ensure an uninterrupted supply; the Iraq War is often cited as a controversial example of this type of subsidization. Accounting for such indirect subsidies is very complex and makes accurate cost comparisons nearly impossible.
A separate issue is the cost of research. The countries of the European Community spend about €200 million annually on research, and it is predicted that it will take several more decades before the industrial use of nuclear fusion will be possible. Proponents of alternative sources of electricity believe that it would be more appropriate to use these funds to introduce renewable sources of electricity.
Availability of commercial fusion energy
Unfortunately, despite widespread optimism (since the 1950s, when the first research began), significant obstacles between today's understanding of nuclear fusion processes, technological capabilities and the practical use of nuclear fusion have not yet been overcome, it is unclear even to what extent there may be It is economically profitable to produce electricity using thermonuclear fusion. Although progress in research is constant, researchers are faced with new challenges every now and then. For example, the challenge is developing a material that can withstand neutron bombardment, which is estimated to be 100 times more intense than traditional nuclear reactors.
The following stages are distinguished in research:
1.Equilibrium or “pass” mode(Break-even): when the total energy released during the synthesis process is equal to total energy spending on launching and maintaining the reaction. This relationship is marked with the symbol Q. The reaction equilibrium was demonstrated at JET (Joint European Torus) in the UK in 1997. (Having spent 52 MW of electricity to heat it up, the scientists obtained a power output that was 0.2 MW higher than what was expended.)
2.Blazing Plasma(Burning Plasma): An intermediate stage in which the reaction will be supported primarily by alpha particles that are produced during the reaction, rather than by external heating. Q ≈ 5. Still not achieved.
3. Ignition(Ignition): a stable reaction that maintains itself. Should be achieved at large values of Q. Still not achieved.
The next step in research should be ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor), the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor. At this reactor it is planned to study the behavior of high-temperature plasma (flaming plasma with Q ~ 30) and structural materials for an industrial reactor. The final phase of the research will be DEMO: a prototype industrial reactor in which ignition will be achieved and the practical suitability of the new materials will be demonstrated. The most optimistic forecast for the completion of the DEMO phase: 30 years. Considering the estimated time for construction and commissioning of an industrial reactor, we are ~40 years away from the industrial use of thermonuclear energy.
Existing tokamaks
In total, about 300 tokamaks were built in the world. The largest of them are listed below.
- USSR and Russia
- T-3 is the first functional device.
- T-4 - enlarged version of T-3
- T-7 is a unique installation in which, for the first time in the world, a relatively large magnetic system with a superconducting solenoid based on tin niobate cooled by liquid helium is implemented. The main task of T-7 was completed: the prospect for the next generation of superconducting solenoids for thermonuclear power was prepared.
- T-10 and PLT are the next step in world thermonuclear research, they are almost the same size, equal power, with the same confinement factor. And the results obtained are identical: both reactors achieved the desired temperature of thermonuclear fusion, and the lag according to the Lawson criterion is only two hundred times.
- T-15 is a reactor of today with a superconducting solenoid giving a field strength of 3.6 Tesla.
- Libya
- TM-4A
- Europe and UK
- JET (English) (Joint Europeus Tor) is the world's largest tokamak, created by the Euratom organization in the UK. It uses combined heating: 20 MW - neutral injection, 32 MW - ion cyclotron resonance. As a result, the Lawson criterion is only 4-5 times lower than the ignition level.
- Tore Supra (French) (English) - a tokamak with superconducting coils, one of the largest in the world. Located at the Cadarache research center (France).
- USA
- TFTR (English) (Test Fusion Tokamak Reactor) - the largest tokamak in the USA (at Princeton University) with additional heating by fast neutral particles. A high result has been achieved: the Lawson criterion at a true thermonuclear temperature is only 5.5 times lower than the ignition threshold. Closed 1997
- NSTX (English) (National Spherical Torus Experiment) is a spherical tokamak (spheromak) currently operating at Princeton University. The first plasma in the reactor was produced in 1999, two years after TFTR was closed.
Until quite recently, people believed that an atom was a single, indivisible particle. Later it became clear that it consists of a nucleus and electrons rotating around it. At the same time, the central part was again considered indivisible and whole. Today we know that it consists of protons and neutrons. Moreover, depending on the number of the latter, the same substance may have several isotopes. So, tritium is a substance, how to get it and use it?
Tritium - what is it?
Hydrogen is the simplest substance in nature. If we talk about its most common form, which will be discussed in more detail below, then its atom consists of only one proton and one electron. However, it can also accept “extra” particles, which somewhat change its properties. Thus, the tritium nucleus consists of a proton and two neutrons. And if protium, that is, the simplest form of hydrogen, this cannot be said about its “improved” version - in nature it is found in small quantities.
The hydrogen isotope tritium (the name comes from the Greek word for "third") was discovered in 1934 by Rutherford, Oliphant and Harteck. And in fact, they tried to find him for a very long time and persistently. Immediately after the discovery of deuterium and heavy water in 1932, scientists began to search for this isotope by increasing the sensitivity of studying ordinary hydrogen. However, in spite of everything, their attempts were in vain - even in the most concentrated samples they could not get even a hint of the presence of a substance that was simply obliged to exist. But in the end, the search was still crowned with success - Oliphant synthesized the element with the help of Rutherford's laboratory.
In short, the definition of tritium is as follows: a radioactive isotope of hydrogen whose nucleus consists of a proton and two neutrons. So, what is known about him?
About hydrogen isotopes
The first element of the periodic table is also the most common in the Universe. Moreover, in nature it is found in the form of one of its three isotopes: protium, deuterium or tritium. The nucleus of the first consists of one proton, which gives it its name. By the way, this is the only stable element that does not have neutrons. The next in the series of hydrogen isotopes is deuterium. Its atomic nucleus consists of a proton and a neutron, and its name comes from the Greek word for “second.”
Even heavier isotopes of hydrogen with mass numbers from 4 to 7 were also obtained in the laboratory. Their half-life is limited to fractions of seconds.
Properties
The atomic mass of tritium is approximately 3.02 a. e.m. According to their own physical properties this substance is almost no different from ordinary hydrogen, that is, under normal conditions it is a light gas without color, taste or smell, and has high thermal conductivity. At a temperature of about -250 degrees Celsius it becomes a light and flowing colorless liquid. The range within which it is found in a given state of aggregation is quite narrow. The melting point is about 259 degrees Celsius, below which hydrogen becomes a snow-like mass. In addition, this element dissolves quite well in some metals.
However, there are some differences in properties. Firstly, the third isotope has less reactivity, and secondly, tritium is radioactive and therefore unstable. is just over 12 years. During the process of radiolysis, it turns into a third isotope of helium with the emission of an electron and an antineutrino.
Receipt
In nature, tritium is found in small quantities and is most often formed in the upper layers of the atmosphere during the collision of cosmic particles and, for example, nitrogen atoms. However, there is also an industrial method for obtaining this element by irradiating lithium-6 with neutrons in
Synthesizing tritium in a volume whose mass is about 1 kilogram costs approximately $30 million.
Usage
So, we learned a little more about tritium - what it is and its properties. But why is it needed? Let's figure it out a little lower. According to some data, the world commercial demand for tritium is about 500 grams per year, and another 7 kilograms are spent on military needs.
According to the American Institute for Energy and Environmental Research, from 1955 to 1996, the United States produced 2.2 hundredweight of super-heavy hydrogen. And in 2003, the total reserves of this element were about 18 kilograms. What are they used for?
Firstly, tritium is necessary to maintain the combat effectiveness of nuclear weapons, which, as we know, some countries still possess. Secondly, thermonuclear energy cannot do without it. Tritium is also used in some scientific research, for example, in geology it is used to date natural waters. Another purpose is the power supply for the backlight in the watch. In addition, experiments are currently being conducted to create ultra-low power radioisotope generators, for example, to power autonomous sensors. It is expected that in this case their service life will be about 20 years. The cost of such a generator will be about one thousand dollars.
As original souvenirs, there are also keychains with a small amount of tritium inside. They emit a glow and look quite exotic, especially if you know about the internal contents.
Danger
Tritium is radioactive, which explains some of its properties and uses. Its half-life is about 12 years, producing helium-3 with the emission of an antineutrino and an electron. During this reaction, 18.59 kW of energy is released and beta particles are distributed into the air. It may seem strange to the average person that a radioactive isotope is used, say, for illumination in a watch, because this can be dangerous, can’t it? In fact, tritium hardly poses any threat to human health, since beta particles during its decay spread a maximum of 6 millimeters and cannot overcome the simplest barriers. However, this does not mean that working with it is absolutely safe - any ingestion with food, air or absorption through the skin can lead to problems. Although in most cases it is easily and quickly removed, this is not always the case. So, tritium - what is it in terms of radiation hazard?
Protection measures
Despite the fact that the low decay energy of tritium does not allow radiation to spread seriously, so that beta particles cannot even penetrate the skin, you should not neglect your health. When working with this isotope, you can, of course, not use a radiation protection suit, but basic rules, such as closed clothing and surgical gloves, must be observed. Since tritium poses the main danger when ingested, it is important to stop activities that could lead to this. Otherwise there is nothing to worry about.
If, however, it enters the body tissues in large quantities, acute or chronic radiation sickness may develop, depending on the duration, dose and regularity of exposure. In some cases, this disease can be successfully cured, but with extensive lesions, death is possible.
There are traces of tritium in any normal body, although they are absolutely insignificant and hardly affect the body. But for lovers of watches with luminous hands, its level is several times higher, although it is still considered safe.
Super heavy water
Tritium, like ordinary hydrogen, can form new substances. In particular, it is included in the molecule of so-called superheavy (superheavy) water. The properties of this substance are not too different from H 2 O, which is familiar to every person. Despite the fact that tritium water can also participate in metabolism, it is quite highly toxic and is eliminated within a ten-day period, during which the tissues can receive a fairly high degree of irradiation. And although this substance is less dangerous in itself, it is more dangerous due to the period during which it remains in the body.
Introduction
Tritium 3 H is a radioactive superheavy hydrogen radionuclide with a mass number of 3. T 1/2 = 12.35 years. Under normal conditions, tritium is a gas, t pl = -252.52 0 C. In combination with oxygen, tritium forms super-heavy water T 3 O. An isotope indicator, it is part of thermonuclear fuel. Today thermonuclear reactions have only been carried out in hydrogen bomb explosions.
Physical encyclopedia. M. Scientific publishing house “Big Russian Encyclopedia” volume 5 p.168.
State of the problem.
Tritium: Modern science has an idea of any chemical element from the point of view of the presence of a gravitational layer. If the layer potentials are set to zero, the element does not exist.
when filling more than 2 electronic layers with the simultaneous removal of potentials from gravitational lattices, it converts tritium into a non-inertial mass with the possibility of subsequent use as fuel. All radiation octaves are included in the electronic layers.
The outer (gravitational) lattice has an octave of 32.62546258, the next one has an octave of 53.66. If you remove potentials from it, then the combustion of tritium will differ from the combustion of hydrogen and deuterium. Beta minus decay is caused by the decay of the external gravitational lattice and has nothing to do with the electronic layers.
Deuterium:
Zeroing the tritium lattices transfers it to a state that is stable relative to the external environment, with a minimum number of electronic lattices of 2 and, so that it does not spontaneously ignite, external lattices of 3 (octaves 53.66, 51.66, 32.62546258). The outer lattice determines the liquid state of deuterium.
Hydrogen:
the presence of only gravitational layers and a radiation grating (32.62546258 octaves) does not allow the use of hydrogen as fuel (for thermonuclear fusion), since there are no electronic layers, and the external contours of the gravitational gratings are accepted for a running electron and a jumping proton(which can be weighed).
Thus, the basic element is tritium, and deuterium and hydrogen are its isotopes.
Hydrogen cannot be converted into a state of non-inertial mass.
Note that all 3 elements are one element with different properties depending on the state of the lattices.
The number of tritium isotopes = 2 44 – 1 or 17592186044415, one of them is hydrogen. Of this variety, it is necessary to have only 2 isotopes for objects (UFOs), 15 isotopes for movement in Space, and only 1 isotope for the formation of water. The use of other isotopes for the formation of water is excluded due to incompatible frequency boundaries.
Tritium exists in a liquid state at temperatures below -253 0 C.
Solid state unknown. Tritium is a fuel for all types of objects (UFOs). Liquid tritium is used, costs are shown in the table of objects (UFO).
Tritium reserves are not endless; no nature creates it.
To create tritium, there are special installations (generators - objects of the Complexes), which produce tritium with its subsequent dissolution in water, and all objects (UFOs) are located near bodies of water. Any object (UFO) is able to process water and extract tritium from it in the amount necessary to carry out the program.
As tritium is consumed, its reserves are replenished by generators. This maintains the constant operating condition of all objects (UFOs) located on Earth. All satellites of the planets have their own reserves of tritium; many satellites act as tritium warehouses, the reserves of which are such that they can go on any trip.
The minimum rate of tritium in water is 0.00000064%. When the tritium content reaches less than 22% of this value, the generators begin producing tritium. If tritium is completely removed from water, its specific gravity will be 0.77 g/cm 3 .
Science does not know the actual structure of tritium and its properties.
In its pure form, tritium can only be released by the generator of the Complex object.
Tritium lattice
Tritium is unknown to science. What is taken to be tritium is a cubic lattice framing a structure containing octaves up to 96. The lattice itself has a gravitational basis, so the contents can be weighed, that is, the weight and, accordingly, the content in the water of the lattice itself is determined.
The contents have a non-inertial mass and cannot be weighed.
The outer tritium lattice has an octave of 32.62546258. Deuterium and hydrogen have the same lattice.
The radioactivity of tritium is determined by the 53 octave lattice (2nd electronic layer). Norm for this layer = 2%. The structures within the lattice are dodecahedral-icosahedral formations containing octaves from 53 to 96 inclusive. How then does water obtain the necessary density and what is added in connection with oxygen?
When in contact with the tritium structure, oxygen receives an additional gravitational atom, that is, it “becomes heavier,” while this property disappears when the bonds are broken. That is why it is believed that tritium in water is hundredths of a percent.
However, tritium occupies almost 1/3 of the space in the structure and changes physicochemical characteristics oxygen in the bundle.
From the popular science film /Volga-Volga/ the population learned that “without water and neither here nor there.”
Why do biological structures need water?
Only to extract high octave compounds (“living water”).
In this case, the brain receives the entire necessary supply of frequencies (non-inertial mass) and uses it for its life activities. Let us note that despite the difference in genotypes, water is “suitable” for everyone.
Everyone receives from water the frequencies at which the brain works. A person cannot live without water for more than 3-5 days; he must constantly be fed from tritium structures.
Sea water also contains tritium, but it does not contain the frequencies that the brain needs.
Water, purified from part of the non-inertial mass, is thrown out of the body in the form of urine and sweat. By the way, by the difference source water - urine urine test can show brain structure– it contains those frequencies that the brain does not use (prospective diagnostics). The Kailash complex does not constantly check the brain (every Tuesday) for compliance.
There they simply apply a mask to the incoming code (the effects of code masking is a separate topic). The operation takes microseconds, and in 4 hours the entire population of the Earth is tested.
Every year a standard of water (“Epiphany water”) is set in accordance with the brain for whom it is primarily intended.
So, if the brain has received a new (higher octave), then in tritium this octave will have a maximum potential, and the potentials of the remaining octaves will be reduced to an effective minimum.
Outwardly, the water remains the same (it can, for example, change color to green), but at its core it will have new frequencies.
This always happens when starting a new Program. The water that existed 100 years ago and the water that exists now are significantly different in the structure of the non-inertial mass.
For archeology lovers. If you drilled a well in Antarctica and came across an “ancient underground lake,” keep in mind that the structure of the non-inertial mass of that water will be the same as above, since the general lattice on Earth is the same.
What then is “dead water”? This water has only tritium gravitational frequencies. If the brain receives such water, it is forced to use up its own reserves in order to throw such a “gift” out of the body.
In critical situations, such reserves may not exist, and then water becomes poison. When urine and sweat are released, the cubic lattice is maintained.
Then why do objects need tritium?
Space has a dodecahedral-icosahedral lattice structure with zero potential, framed by a cubic structure of neutrinos and antineutrinos.
When moving in Space, an object (UFO) having magnetic frequencies and electrical potentials is forced to give them away, saturating the lattices of Space. However, it is necessary to give back what is in the same structure, otherwise changing the phasing angle (converting to another type of lattice) will simply lead to thermal death. Any object (UFO) moving independently in Space must have either a magnetic-electric generator to produce tritium, or tritium reserves with octaves up to 96 (the higher the octave, the lower the consumption).
The Cosmos does not need gravitational octaves; they remain on the object (UFO).
Let us pay attention to the fact that a large number of satellites of planets in the Solar System have huge reserves of tritium (see section: Earth Objects).
It's the same in Space. The receiving and sending grids must be identical. But this is all in Space, everything you need can be carried there inside the Moon, for example. But during movement, a cone of movement is formed, into which tritium is dumped.
Why do objects (UFOs) on Earth need tritium?
Only for ascent from the main energy bus of the Earth and return.
The depth reaches 4200 meters. Modern builders use powerful technology to build tunnels. A tunnel up to 4200 meters is capable of digging one object (UFO), with the only tool being tritium.
The lifting and landing complex (index 2(3)), after issuing the command “lift” or “return” from the location point to the surface of the Earth, creates an anti-gravity tube, that is, it removes potentials from the cubic lattice throughout the lifting or landing of the object (UFO) .
This is not done simultaneously, but in sections (usually 200 - 300 meters). Since all materials (periodic tables) have a cubic or close to it lattice, there is no problem in removing the electric potential and removing the magnetic impulse.
The object (UFO) does the rest. Any element has in its structure the same lattice of the Cosmos (dodecahedral-icosahedral), but this lattice has no potentials (they are equal to zero). If you start to saturate it, the chemical element begins to change its properties (platinum can be obtained from granite).
However, if saturation exceeds a certain limit, then the entire structure acquires the properties of a non-inertial mass (similar to the cavity of a working neon tube). Ball lightning - an object (UFO) - slips through this cavity.
Upon reaching the next site, the traversed section is transferred to its original state. It is for the formation of a section with non-inertial mass that tritium is needed.
Deuterium is not suitable here, since the lattices are incompatible and instead of a non-inertial mass we get a cake of unknown origin.
When reaching the Earth's surface, the atmospheric lattice is used for propulsion and the tritium consumption is minimal (tens of thousands of times less than during ascent and landing).
Why doesn't an explosion (of a hydrogen bomb) occur?
Each object has its own thermonuclear fusion generator, operating on the principle village stove– the more the damper is open, the more powerful the release of potentials. By the way, you can get the simplest thermonuclear reaction at home if you throw a piece of Na into water. Not only does it burn, it can also explode.
In sea water there will be no combustion or explosion, but the smell of sulfur will appear.
Of course, sea-based facilities are luckier. They move in their native environment, the formation of movement tubes requires a minimum consumption of tritium, they can replenish reserves as they move (Baron Munchausen’s description is about a horse that cannot get drunk because it does not have a second half).
Where does tritium come from?
As noted, the grid of the Cosmos has a certain structure. To move through this structure, you must either scatter electrical potentials around you (and supply them with magnetic impulses) or create a cone of movement. The height of the cone is billions of kilometers.
For navigation, planetary satellites are used (calculation of motion, formation of a cone, correction of orbits). Tritium is discharged only in the cone of motion and therefore there must be reserves of it.
However, all planets Solar System have pyramid complexes, and some of them are intended for processing Space debris.
This debris is first neutralized by communication with an oxidizing agent (beautiful high-altitude clouds), then frequencies are added for shaping and we get water droplets.
However, you cannot drink such water (you can water the plants, but in this case the plants begin to intensively contract the potentials of the atmospheric lattice).
To give water the necessary qualities, there are special generators, the functions of which include saturating tritium with all the necessary frequencies, after which the structure associated with oxygen is used by everyone - people, animals, insects, plants, objects.
Tritium Formation Generators
To form tritium, the following complexes were brought and installed:
|
Center name |
Location |
Number of magnetic pyramids |
Number of electrical pyramids |
Number of gravitational |
|
| Basic complex | Chekhov, Russia | ||||
| Main complex | Suez, Egypt | ||||
| Work complex 01 | Gabon, Africa | ||||
| Work complex 02 | Kenya, Africa | ||||
| Work complex 03 | Kalimantan, Indonesia | ||||
| Work complex 04 | Nauru, Pacific Ocean | ||||
| Work complex 05 | Ecuador, South America | ||||
| Work complex 06 | Brazil, South America | ||||
| Work complex 07 | Tyumen, Russia | ||||
| Work complex 08 | Altai, China (Chinese Wall) | ||||
| Work complex 09 | Solomon islands | ||||
| Work complex 10 | Switzerland, Europe | ||||
| Work complex 11 | Kailash, Tibet | ||||
| Work complex 12 | Kola Peninsula |
Basic complex– control system for magnetic, electric and gravitational pyramids.
Main complex– management of work complexes.
Work complex– storage, control, working release.
Pyramid maintenance.
All complexes are serviced by robots that were specially created.
The management of all processes and the formation of orders is carried out only by those who have the 96th octave of the brain (including all the octaves necessary for life). In addition, it has as many matrices as necessary to execute the Program.
Conclusions.
1. Tritium is the most unknown element on Earth.
2. By changing the gravitational lattices alone, 256 different stable chemical elements can be obtained. By changing the potentials of gravitational lattices within a tolerance (from 2 to 124%), we obtain isotopes with the properties of alpha, beta and gamma decays. By adding at least one electron layer, we will also obtain a chemical element that emits photons, for example, Phosphorus or Actinium ( Face-centered cubic lattice, luminous (spontaneous beta decay)).
3. Tritium in Space does not have potentials on gravitational and electronic lattices. In addition, there are no external control grids.
4. Each tritium electron lattice has a dodecahedral-icosahedral structure. Adding a cubic structure to the outer contour does not change the internal structure.
5. Combinations of external cubic lattices (not nested within each other) lead to the formation of various external forms (such as triclinic and others).
6. Any chemical element can be transferred to a state of non-inertial mass by removing potentials from the external gravitational lattice.
7. The tritium standard in the water structure is established once a year by the Greenland Complex.
8. Significant changes in water structure occur from October 21 to January 18 (every year), with the peak of mortality occurring in November.
9. Water obtained by processing Cosmic tritium is sequentially saturated with the necessary octaves before reaching the Earth.
10. The water cycle in nature can only be obtained in a saucepan or in a bathhouse (that is, in a confined space).
11. Evaporation of water from water basins does not lead to the formation of precipitation or at least fog - this pair lacks a significant number of octaves that form generators in the upper layers of the atmosphere. Therefore, the resulting steam simply dissipates, and the rains are a consequence of the intensive work of the generators.
Moreover, when the main tire overheats, it has to be cooled, and steam envelops entire areas in the form of a thick fog. However, for some reason the computers do not work.
12. Since a chemical element without gravitational mass does not exist (it cannot be seen, much less sold), science denies it in every possible way.
The words “deuterium” and “tritium” remind us that today man has at his disposal the most powerful source of energy released during the reaction:
2 1 N + 3 1 N > 4 2 He + 1 0 n+ 17.6 MeV.
This reaction begins at 10 million degrees and proceeds in insignificant fractions of a second during the explosion of a thermonuclear bomb, and a gigantic amount of energy is released on Earth scales.
Hydrogen bombs are sometimes compared to the Sun. However, we have already seen that slow and stable thermonuclear processes occur on the Sun. The sun gives us life, but the hydrogen bomb promises death...
But someday the time will come - and this time is not far off - when the measure of value will not be gold, but energy. And then hydrogen isotopes will save humanity from the impending energy famine: in controlled thermonuclear processes, every liter of natural water will provide the same amount of energy as 300 liters of gasoline now provide. And humanity will remember with bewilderment that there was a time when people threatened each other with a life-giving source of heat and light...
Protium, deuterium, tritium...
The physical and chemical properties of the isotopes of all elements except hydrogen are practically the same: after all, for atoms whose nuclei consist of several protons and neutrons, it is not so important whether there is one less neutron or one more neutron. But the nucleus of a hydrogen atom is a single proton, and if a neutron is added to it, the mass of the nucleus will almost double, and if there are two neutrons, it will triple. Therefore, light hydrogen (protium) boils at minus 252.6 °C, and the boiling point of its isotopes differs from this value by 3.2 ° (deuterium) and 4.5 ° (tritium). For isotopes this is a very big difference!
Amazing isotopes are distributed unequally in nature: there is one atom of deuterium for about 7000, and one atom of beta radioactive tritium for a billion billion protium atoms. Another extremely unstable isotope of hydrogen, 4 H, has been artificially obtained.
Precision comes first
The relative mass of the light hydrogen isotope was determined with fantastic accuracy: 1.007276470 (if we take the mass of the carbon isotope 12 C equal to 12.0000000). If, for example, the length of the equator were measured with such precision, the error would not exceed 4 cm!
But why is such precision needed? After all, each new figure requires more and more effort from experimenters... The secret is revealed simply: protium nuclei, protons, take part in many nuclear reactions. And if the masses of the reacting nuclei and the masses of the reaction products are known, then, using the formula E = mc 2, its energy effect can be calculated. And since the energy effects of even nuclear reactions are accompanied by only a slight change in mass, it is necessary to measure these masses as accurately as possible.
When heavy nuclei fission in a reactor, energy is released. Where is the source of this energy? Why is it released at the moment when the core splits into two parts?
The uranium-235 nucleus consists of 92 protons and 143 neutrons. It is not a simple mechanical mixture of elementary particles, like, say, a mixture of iron filings and sulfur powder. The particles that make up the nucleus of an atom are very tightly bound to each other by so-called nuclear forces. This bond between the particles in the nucleus is many millions of times stronger than the bond that exists between the atoms in the molecule of any chemical compound. Calcine the same iron filings mixed with sulfur, you get chemical compound- iron sulfide. To break down all the iron sulfide molecules into iron and sulfur atoms contained in one gram requires energy in the amount of approximately one large calorie. And to destroy all the nuclei contained in a piece of uranium weighing one gram into elementary particles, energy of about 170 million large calories would be needed. This amount of energy is released when burning almost 20 tons of gasoline.
Neutrons and protons in the nuclei of various chemical elements are connected to each other in different ways: in some they are stronger, in others - weaker. When a uranium nucleus fissions, as already mentioned, two “fragments” are formed, which are the nuclei of atoms in the middle of the periodic table of elements, for example, the nuclei of barium and krypton atoms. The protons and neutrons in these nuclei are bound together more tightly than they were in the nuclei of uranium or other heavy elements at the end of the periodic table. To destroy one barium nucleus and one krypton nucleus into elementary particles (protons and neutrons) would require ten percent more energy than to destroy one uranium nucleus.
If some specific energy is needed to split a nucleus into individual elementary particles, then when nuclei are formed from these particles, according to the law of conservation of energy, the same energy should be released.
Let us mentally divide the process of fission of a uranium nucleus into two stages. The first stage is the destruction of the uranium nucleus into protons and neutrons; in this case, energy is expended in the amount of 170 million large calories per gram of pure uranium. The second stage is the formation of barium and krypton nuclei from elementary particles formed during the destruction of uranium nuclei. This process is accompanied by the release of energy in the amount of about 190 million large calories. As a result of both stages of the reaction, an energy gain of 20 million large calories is obtained. To obtain this amount of energy, you need to burn about two tons of gasoline. Thus, the “calorific value” of uranium during its fission turns out to be two million times higher than when burning gasoline.
Let us clarify our reasoning with the following example. Let's say you are standing on the side of a mountain and drawing water from a well two meters deep. To lift every kilogram of water you spend two kilograms of work. Then you pour this water through a chute onto a turbine wheel located five meters below. If we neglect all kinds of energy losses, then the turbine will perform work equal to five kilograms-meters. As a result, we get three kilograms-meters more work than we spend.
When the nuclei of heavy elements fission, they do not disintegrate into individual elementary particles, they only split into two parts - fragments. Inside the resulting fragments, a rearrangement of elementary particles instantly occurs; they “pack” more tightly, and this process is accompanied by the release of energy, and more energy is released than is spent on the destruction of the heavy nucleus.
Calculations show that during the fission of heavy nuclei, only part of the energy stored in the nucleus is released. Significantly more energy is obtained if the same nuclei of barium and krypton are synthesized (composed) directly from protons and neutrons. Then you won’t have to expend energy of 170 million large calories on the destruction of heavy nuclei. In the example with water, this would correspond to the fact that there is no need to pull it up from the well, but to use a pool in which the water is at the level of the upper edge of the gutter.
But to synthesize atomic nuclei from neutrons and protons, it is necessary first of all to have these elementary particles at our disposal. IN finished form they do not exist in nature. They can only be obtained artificially. However, neutrons and protons released in a free state cannot be stored for future use. Protons are protium atoms lacking a single electron; under normal conditions they cannot exist for long. The protons will find the lost electrons and transform back into electrically neutral protium atoms.
Neutrons easily penetrate into the nuclei of atoms and are captured by them. In addition, neutrons are radioactive. The lifespan of neutrons in a free state is a matter of minutes. If a neutron manages to avoid being captured by a nucleus, it spontaneously turns into a proton and an electron. Where did the electron come from during the radioactive transformation of a neutron? The fact is that both the neutron and the proton are essentially the same elementary particle, only they are in different energy states. To emphasize the commonality of these particles, when they collectively make up some kind of atomic nucleus, they are even called by the same name - nucleons. This is what they say, for example, the nucleus of the chlorine-35 isotope consists of 35 nucleons, without dividing them into protons and neutrons. The process of transition of a neutron into a proton is a spontaneous transition from a higher energy level to a lower one; at the same time, an electron is “born”. The spontaneous transition of a proton into a neutron is impossible; this would correspond to a transition from a low energy level to a higher one, which contradicts the law of conservation of energy. A stone lying on the ground will never rise by itself, without the intervention of an external force. If the proton is told from the outside required amount energy, it can turn into a neutron, and this act is accompanied by the appearance of a particle similar to an electron, but positively charged. It is called, as we already know, a positron. This is how it turns out that although there are no electrons in neutrons, and positrons in protons, but during their mutual transformation these particles are released.
So, if it is possible to obtain neutrons and protons in free form, then they must be immediately used for the synthesis of atomic nuclei.
The destruction of heavy nuclei such as uranium into elementary particles (nucleons) involves the expenditure of a large amount of energy. Are there nuclei in nature in which protons and neutrons are not so tightly bound to each other as in the uranium nucleus? If such nuclei exist, then the first mental stage of the reaction - the destruction of the nucleus - would require less energy. Returning to the example with a well and a gutter, you need to look for a shallow well if possible.
This is where hydrogen comes onto the scene with its heavy isotopes and now not one, but two.
What role did deuterium play in the operation of a nuclear reactor? Its role was auxiliary - to slow down fast neutrons to thermal speeds. He did not take any direct part in the release of nuclear energy. In many reactors, as you already know, carbon in the form of graphite blocks or ordinary water are successfully used as neutron moderators. There are reactors without a moderator at all - these are reactors operating on fast neutrons. In the processes with which we will now become acquainted, hydrogen isotopes are of decisive importance in the release of nuclear energy.
In addition to the heavy isotope of hydrogen - deuterium, there is also a superheavy isotope - tritium; it is designated by the letter T. In addition to the proton, the tritium nucleus contains not one neutron, like deuterium, but two (Fig. 13). Unlike deuterium
(white circles indicate protons, black circles indicate neutrons that make up the nucleus).
Half of all available tritium atoms decay in 12.2 years. This period is not great, but it is quite sufficient to always have tritium in stock in the required quantity.
Tritium is a more complex isotope of hydrogen. In its properties, it differs from protium more than deuterium.
Like the first two isotopes, tritium can be condensed into a liquid. The boiling point of liquid tritium is already 4.65 degrees higher than the boiling point of protium. Its heat of evaporation is even higher than that of deuterium. When tritium combines with oxygen, water is formed, which is called tritium or superheavy water. Like deuterium, tritium combines with melt, deuterium, and oxygen isotopes to produce water of varying isotopic compositions. To the nine varieties of water that deuterium gave, now an equal number of new ones are being added, the molecules of which include tritium atoms. The formulas of these molecules can be written as follows:
MSW16, LLP17 and LLP18.
Reasoning in the same way as in the case of fission of uranium nuclei (see page 50), we mentally divide the process into two stages: the first is the destruction of deuterium and tritium nuclei into individual nucleons, the second is the synthesis of helium nuclei from them. Neutrons and protons are bound together in deuterium and tritium nuclei much less tightly than in helium nuclei. Therefore, the destruction of the nuclei of two hydrogen isotopes requires a total of less energy than is released during the synthesis of one helium nucleus from the resulting elementary particles. Calculations show that with the formation of just one gram of atoms of the helium-4 isotope from deuterium and tritium nuclei, about one hundred million large calories of energy are released. This is five times more energy released when one gram of uranium fissions under the influence of neutrons.
To carry out the fusion reaction of helium nuclei, it is necessary to cause the deuterium and tritium nuclei to collide with each other. This is the main difficulty in carrying out the fusion reaction of helium nuclei. After all, both colliding nuclei are positively charged, and electrically similarly charged bodies repel each other. To overcome electrical repulsive forces, it is necessary to approach the nuclei at
put in a lot of effort. How to do this? Apparently, it is necessary to impart to the nuclei such an energy of motion that would be sufficient to overcome the repulsive forces acting between them.
The average speed of random motion of particles, and therefore their energy, is determined by temperature. The higher the temperature of the body, the greater the average energy of the particles, the faster they move. This means that our isotopes need to be heated and heated to a very high temperature, on the order of a million degrees and even higher. Only at such temperatures will the particle energy be sufficient to overcome the electrical repulsive forces between the nuclei. If we remember that even on the surface of the Sun the temperature is only 6000 degrees, then the difficulty of heating bodies to a million degrees becomes obvious. The only source known in our time with which such temperatures can be reached is the explosion of an atomic bomb, that is, the chain process of fission of uranium or plutonium nuclei. In the zone of such an explosion, deuterium and tritium will exist in the form of plasma - a medium consisting of “bare” atomic nuclei, devoid of electron shells. Under such conditions, the nuclei of hydrogen isotopes are able to combine into helium nuclei when they meet, and the so-called thermonuclear reaction occurs. This or a similar process occurs during the explosion of a hydrogen bomb.
In order to use the energy released during thermonuclear reactions for peaceful purposes, it is necessary to learn how to control such reactions. Scientists from many countries around the world are now busy solving this very difficult problem. Much research in this direction is being carried out here in the Soviet Union. A successful solution to this problem will relieve mankind of worrying about searching for new sources of energy and will lead to an unprecedented flourishing of science and technology.
Only two and a half decades separate us from the discovery of heavy water and the time when it was obtained in quantities that fit at the bottom of a small test tube. In this short time, heavy water has gained a strong place in nuclear energy. It turned out to be the best moderator for nuclear reactors, work
Powered by thermal neutrons. However, this is not the most important thing. Heavy water acquires primary importance in the implementation of thermonuclear reactions. For these reactions, it is first necessary to have sufficient raw materials, that is, deuterium and tritium. Deuterium atoms are an integral part of heavy water molecules. Tritium atoms can be obtained, as we have seen, from deuterium atoms. Consequently, heavy water is the source that supplies the necessary elements for the fusion reaction of helium nuclei. Therefore, now the production of heavy water in many countries of the world is carried out on a large factory scale.