The first thing that comes to mind when it comes to Earth science is geography. Indeed, it is the oldest science that studies our planet in the broad sense of the word, including the life of its main inhabitant - man. But modern Earth science has many branches and specifications, such as geology, geodesy, oceanography, seismology, volcanology and so on. The list is not small, and a separate article should be devoted to this. But the basis of all these sciences is geography.
Origins
The mother of modern earth sciences, geography, studies the seas and oceans, continents and islands, climate, natural resources, fauna, birds inhabiting our planet, and the people living on it - where and in what numbers they settle, what nationalities exist, how the economic life of his society is taking shape. Therefore, when the question is: “What is the name of Earth science?”, we can safely say geography. All other disciplines in this field have descended from it.
Goals and means
The most important task of this science is to determine the suitability of various parts of our planet for human habitation. The main assistant of a geographer is maps. Looking at them, you can see areas of different colors indicating seas, oceans, rivers, mountains, glaciers, deserts, soil depths, vegetation, population density and many other geographical quantities and concepts.
Geodescription is what the science of the Earth is called, translated from ancient Greek.
Those places on the map that are colored blue, white, beige and brown indicate sparsely populated areas. People prefer to settle in those places that are colored green and yellow on the map. Of course, because these places on the map indicate land suitable for agriculture (forests, plains), and therefore for the livelihood of the population.
Options
Despite the fact that geography is the basis, often the answer to the question: “What is the science of the Earth?” is given: “Geology.” Why? The word itself comes from “geo”, which means earth and “logos” - knowledge (word, teaching). Ah, geography is “geo” (earth) and “graphos” (writing).
This means that geography describes the Earth, and geology studies it.
All disciplines that study the Earth belong to the natural sciences. Their number is great. There are very young ones, and there are also ancient ones. All of them study the shells of the earth's surface, natural systems and are combined into the category of Earth sciences.
A little history
The heyday of classical geology is the era of the 15th-17th centuries, which was called the Great era in the field of geographical discoveries. This was followed by a period of development of new and little-studied territories by developed powers. In those days, all noble monarchs and rich merchants knew very well what the science of the Earth is called, which was very important for the development of states and enrichment. Of course it's geography. They personally consulted with geographers about plans for future expeditions, generously financing their travels and hoping to more than recoup all expenses.
In a short historical period, the main science about the Earth and man has made so many discoveries that large parts of the oceanic spaces and lands where humans live have appeared on the world map.
In those days, geography was presented as a collection of diverse information about our planet. She indicated the locations of objects and answered the questions “what is this?” But even then, in VIII century, Antarctica and the Arctic, as well as Australia and many inland continental areas, remained blank spots on all maps.
Gradually, North and South America were discovered and settled by Europeans, and the interior regions of Asia, Africa, Australia and other areas of the world became known.
As a result, the most important prerequisites were laid for a new stage in the development of the material culture of human society. At the same time, geographical science played a very significant role - the main earth science of that time.
Today you can go to study at the Institute of Geosciences and get a profession as a geographer. The strategic goal of this institution is the development of fundamental and applied sciences in the field of geography, as well as increasing the level of qualifications of ready-made specialists. All the work of the institute is aimed at promoting the development of the economy, scientific, educational and cultural environment of the state, participation in solving problems of preserving and enhancing natural resources, their rational use, monitoring, preserving unique landscapes, environmental quality, and performing engineering surveys.
Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation Tomsk Polytechnic University N.V. Krepsha Earth Sciences Textbook Tomsk 2004 UDC 55 (075.8) BBK 26. 3ya73 K 684 Krepsha N.V. Geosciences: Textbook / Vol. Polytechnic univ. – Tomsk, 2004. – 160 p. The manual was written in accordance with the program approved by the scientific and methodological council for environmental education of the UMO of technical universities in 2001. The basics of the structure, functioning, development and interconnections of natural systems, methods of research and mapping are presented in an accessible form. The manual was prepared at the Department of Ecology and Life Safety of TPU and is intended for full-time and part-time students of specialty 330 200 “Engineering Environmental Protection”. Published by resolution of the Editorial and Publishing Council of Tomsk Polytechnic University Reviewers Professor of the Department of Engineering Geology and Geoecology of the Tomsk State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Doctor of Geological and Mineralogical Sciences V.E. Olkhovatenko Associate Professor, Department of Hydrogeology, Engineering Geology and Hydrogeoecology, Institute of Geology and Oil and Gas Business, Tomsk Polytechnic University, Candidate of Geological and Mineralogical Sciences A.A. Lukin Templan 2004 © Tomsk Polytechnic University, 2004 2 PREFACE On planet Earth, for a vast population, But such a small one contemplating the Earth from the outside Igor Severyanin Environmental problems in recent decades have become “eternal companions” of the process of development of modern civilization. The severity of these problems is due to the massive involvement of natural resources in the sphere of human economic activity. Therefore, “Earth Sciences,” which study the origin and patterns of distribution of the Earth’s natural resources, were included by the Scientific and Methodological Council for Environmental Education of the UMO of Technical Universities in 2001 in the bachelor’s training plans in the direction of 553,500 “Environmental Protection.” and certified specialists in specialty 330 200 “Environmental Protection Engineering” as an independent academic discipline. According to the State Educational Standard, the list of sections that form the cycle “Earth Sciences” includes: soil science, climatology, meteorology, general geology, hydrogeology, landscape science and cartography. The need to write this textbook is dictated by the absence in Russia of a textbook covering all the sciences about the Earth, i.e. corresponding to the name of the corresponding academic discipline in terms of training environmental specialists. Therefore, the author sought to combine information on the above sciences in a single text. In terms of objectives and structure, the proposed textbook is of a compilative nature. When writing this textbook, the author set herself several tasks. Firstly, the textbook must meet the requirements of the university state educational standard for the academic discipline “Earth Sciences”. These requirements, as sections of the discipline, are reflected in the structure of the textbook, based on the concept of presenting the material. The concept was formed based on three years of experience teaching this course to students majoring in Environmental Protection Engineering. Secondly, the proposed text of the textbook should be logical, systematized, meaningful, scientific, if possible, simple, making it as easy as possible for part-time students to study the course. The textbook provides the latest data in the field of geosciences, although many cycles of the discipline have a centuries-old history. The ecological significance of some terrestrial processes and phenomena (weathering, earthquakes, etc.) is indicated. Thirdly, one of the most difficult tasks is the creation of a textbook on this discipline, which most generally reflects the concept of the unity of 3 knowledge about the Earth, divided into different directions and cycles. For this purpose, the first chapter presents, as the basis for the concept of unity, a logical model of the subordination of the main natural systems (geospheres) of the Earth, proposed by A.A. Lukin and S.S. Gudymovich and in 1982 and based on general methodological principles of systematicity and causality. This model of subordination of the Earth’s geospheres scientifically substantiates and determines the structure of this textbook and the sequence of studying the main sections of the discipline. According to the model, the most “powerful” system is space in all its diversity of influence on the Earth, which is discussed in Chapters 2 and 3. Considering that the endogenous (internal) factors of the Earth are dominant for the outer shells, and the endogenous and exogenous processes are consequences of the interaction of the Earth with the Cosmos, then the structure then proceeds to sequentially study the following geospheres: core and mantle, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere (Chapters 4–8). The author formulated the goal of the discipline “Earth Sciences” as a holistic and systematic study of the structure, functioning and development of the Earth, and a comprehensive assessment and rational use of its resources as the most important condition for the sustainable existence of man on Earth. The author saw the fourth task in making the content of the textbook as clear as possible and making it easy for students to understand. To display and illustrate certain natural phenomena and processes, visual material in the form of tables and figures (there are more than 50 of them) is widely used, for reinforcement, as well as questions of self-control of students and a list of literary sources that the author used when writing. writing of each chapter. To what extent the author was able to solve these problems is for the readers – environmental students – to judge. The author considers the textbook as the first option. He is grateful to the reviewers of this textbook, Professor V.E. Olkhovatenko. and associate professor Lukin A.A. for comments and constructive suggestions that contributed to its improvement. For their part, the author and publishers wish students success in mastering a difficult but very interesting course called “Earth Sciences.” We wish that Hope, Faith and Goodness for the sake of the future do not leave the young generation of ecologists and always inspire us to take care of our only Mother Earth. N.V. Krepsha 4 Chapter 1 EARTH SCIENCES, THEIR SUBJECT AND TASKS “Earth sciences” are classified as natural sciences. It is hardly possible to indicate the entire number of sciences studying the Earth. Both long-established and very young sciences that have emerged recently are usually united under the general name “Earth Sciences”. The list of compulsory disciplines that make up the “Earth Sciences” cycle includes: general geology, hydrogeology, soil science, climatology and meteorology, landscape science, etc. They all study the geosphere (shell) or natural systems of the Earth as a planet. The Earth's geospheres include: core and mantle, lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere. The Earth's geosphere is a consequence of its development as a planet. After the formation of the solid shell of the Earth and its cooling, water appeared in liquid form and the hydrosphere began to form. Oxygen appeared in the atmosphere, which gave impetus to the emergence of life on Earth. Now it can be argued that the water in the oceans and the atmosphere are “daughters” of the earth’s interior. It is in this sequence, corresponding to the history of the development of geospheres, the cause-and-effect relationships of their occurrence and interaction, that it is advisable to study the disciplines of this cycle. Each of the above-mentioned geospheres – mantle, lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere – cannot exist separately. According to the general methodological principle of systematicity and causality, all geospheres are interconnected and interdependent. Based on this, a logical chain of cause-and-effect relationships between natural systems and the Earth’s geospheres was constructed, proposed by A.A. Lukin and S.S. Gudymovich in 1982. Based on some general scientific principles of systematicity and causality, criteria for the subordination of geospheres among themselves and with the cosmos in the “cause-effect” relation during their interaction in the history of the Earth’s development have been derived. The model reflects the entire logical set of direct (impact of causes on the effect) and reverse (effect on the cause) causal relationships of natural systems (Fig. 1). The model is based on the subordination of geospheres in terms of the ratio of mass and time of their formation. According to the basic principle of causality, in this interaction the larger system “controls” the smaller one. The most “powerful” system is space in all the diversity of its influence 5 on the Earth. Next in the model diagram is the Earth with its gravitational and magnetospheres as a single system (Fig. 1). From this model it follows that endogenous (internal) factors of the Earth are dominant for the outer shells, and the endogenous processes themselves are consequences of the interaction of the Earth with space. The model of subordination of the Earth's geospheres allows us to scientifically determine the name and sequence of studying the main sections of the discipline “Earth Sciences”. The relationship between geospheres and the Earth sciences that study them is reflected in Table. 1. It is perhaps impossible to single out a special discipline that studies the lithosphere. All processes occurring in this solid shell have long been the subject of attention of geology. The term “geology” comes from the merger of two Greek words: “geo” - earth and “logos” - knowledge, science. It is a fundamental science of the Earth, which includes many interrelated areas of research: about the substance of the earth’s crust (geochemistry, mineralogy, petrography), about the structure of the crust (geophysics, structural geology, geotectonics), about the history of its development (paleontology, historical geology, paleo - botany). Hydrology studies the water surfaces of the Earth. The air envelope of the planet is “subject to” meteorology: it understands the physical phenomena and processes occurring in the atmosphere. It would seem that the biosphere should belong to the science of biology. But, according to V.I. Vernadsky, “the biosphere is not only the so-called area of life.” The biosphere is a collection of parts of the earth’s shells (litho-, hydro- and atmosphere), which is populated by living organisms, is under their influence and is occupied by the products of their vital activity. On the one hand, it is a living environment, on the other, it is the result of the vital activity of living organisms. The biosphere is a global system. It does not form a continuous layer with clear boundaries. It seems to “permeate” other geospheres of the Earth, covering the entire hydrosphere, the upper part of the lithosphere (2–3 km), and the lower part of the atmosphere (25 km). Within this zone of life interact: solar energy, water, rocks, living matter. Such a complex relationship ensures the sustainability of life processes in the biosphere. “Life reigns supreme in the air, in the water, and on the surface of the planet, in the very firmament of the earth” (Vernadsky, 1989). Therefore, it should be studied by a whole complex of different sciences, united by biology and ecology. Thus, the subject of study of the discipline “Earth Sciences” is the study of the relationship of geospheres as a single whole of the planet Earth. The goal of the cycle of disciplines “Earth Sciences” is a holistic and systematic study of the structure, functioning and development of the Earth, and a comprehensive assessment and rational use of its resources as the most important condition for the sustainable existence of man on Earth. 6 Fig. 1. Model of cause-and-effect subordination of the main systems of the Earth 1 – Space (in all the diversity of influence on the Earth); 2 – The Earth and its global energy sphere (gravity and magnetosphere); 3 – Core and lower mantle of the Earth; 4 – Earth’s tectonosphere and its regional geophysical fields (gravity, wave, thermal, magnetic, etc.); 5 – Geomorphosphere (terrain of the Earth); 6 – Hydrogeosphere (underground hydrosphere); 7 – Hydrosphere; 8 – Underground gas shell; 9 – Atmosphere; 10 – Weathering crust; 11 – Soil shell of the Earth’s land (pedosphere); 12 – Protistosphere (sphere of habitat of microorganisms); 13 – Phytosphere; 14 – Zoosphere; 15 – Noosphere. 7 Table 1 Correlation of geospheres and earth sciences Geospheres Sciences and directions Definitions Science about the structure of the Earth, its origin and development, based on the study Geology of rocks of the lithosphere and global geophysical fields 1. Sciences about the dynamics of the Earth 1. Geotectonics, volcano - (tectonic movements, magmatism, nology and geodynamics, the activity of seas, rivers, groundwater, glaciers, wind, etc.) 2. Historical geology 2. The science of the history of the development of the Earth from the moment of its formation to the present gy Tectonosphere (stratigraphy, paleontology, formational (lithosphere and analysis, etc.) 3. Geophysics 3. The science of the physical fields of the Earth - upper mantle) 4. Geochemistry, minerals - 4. Sciences that study the composition of the Earth at different levels (atomic, mineral and 5. Applied geology native) 5. The science of the practical use of the subsoil of our planet (engineering geology, mineral deposits - coal, oil, gas, building materials, etc.) Geomorphosphere Geomorphology Geological-geographical science of the forms of the earth's surface (relief) Hydrogeosphere Hydrogeology Science about groundwater (underground hydrosphere) Hydrosphere Hydrology Science about surface water Atmosphere Meteorology and climate Science about physical processes and phenomena in the atmosphere Pedosphere Pedosphere Soil science Science about the origin, properties and rational use of the soil shell of land ) Biosphere Biology and ecology Sciences about the interaction of biocenosis (producers, consumers, decomposers) and biotope, man and Nature. There are more than one hundred different specializations in the Geosciences discipline. Some of them are closely related to chemistry (geochemical direction), others – with physics (geophysical direction), others – with biology (paleontological and paleobiological directions), the fourth – with mathematics and cybernetics (computer modeling of geological processes), fifths - with astronomy and astrophysics (cosmic geology), etc. Among the applied sciences of geology, the most environmental one should be noted - engineering geology (Table 1). It is impossible to build buildings, bridges, dams, nuclear power plants, roads, airfields, etc., without knowing the geological conditions of the construction site. Construction in the permafrost zone, which occupies more than 60% of Russia's area, is difficult. The task of engineering geology is to ensure the stability and functioning of buildings and structures in difficult geological conditions. In the depths of the Earth there are deposits of minerals, the search for which is dealt with by geology. Long-term and intensive extraction of certain types of mineral raw materials has led to the depletion of many deposits. The problem of human interaction with nature during geological exploration and mining is a pressing issue. There are two most important problems associated with a rational attitude to mineral resources and compliance with environmental safety: 1) development of effective and environmentally friendly methods for extracting valuable components from the earth’s interior in such a way that environmental disturbances are minimal; 2) the use of depleted ores and improvement of the environmental situation in mines, shafts, and quarries. Correct solution of applied geological and environmental problems requires deep knowledge of the general laws of the structure and development of individual geospheres. Knowledge of the origin and evolution of the Earth, its structure and composition in interaction with the outer shells - water (hydrosphere) and air (atmosphere), as well as with the inner shells - the earth's core and mantle - constitutes a necessary link in the ecological worldview. It allows us to understand how in the history of the Earth the transition from inanimate to living, from inorganic to organic was carried out, how living systems evolve, etc. What is unique about planet Earth? The Earth is a miracle of the Universe. “The face of the Earth seems to us to be peculiar, one of a kind, different and unique in other celestial bodies” (Vernadsky, 1989). This unique planet revolves around the Sun and its own axis, shrouded in its own blue atmosphere, where oxygen contains 21%. An excess of it would threaten our existence; nitrogen (78%) serves to dilute the atmosphere. Only on Earth there is life. It is supported by solar-terrestrial interaction with an optimal ratio of light, air, heat, water, food. The Earth is at the “right” distance from the Sun for life (145–152 million km) so that it is neither too cold nor too hot and water can exist. The periods of rotation around its axis (24 hours, 1 day) and around the sun (365.25 days) determined the main biological rhythms of all living organisms. 9 The Earth had to arise in such a way that a sufficient supply of radioactive elements would serve as “fuel” to maintain the operation of the giant heat engine that is our planet. The Earth also has the most suitable radius (diameter 12,756 km), one that allows the mantle material to mix slowly and the outer part of the core to remain liquid. This creates a protective magnetic field above the ground. Another protection for the biosphere is created by the ozone layer, preventing ultraviolet radiation, which is harmful to all living things, from reaching the Earth. There is no such combination of conditions on any other terrestrial planet. The appearance of intelligent beings on the planet is the pinnacle of the evolution of life. This is how wise nature is in creating the uniqueness of the planet. The earth, as a natural object, is so complex that it is almost impossible to use conventional research methods, for example, experiments, as in the technical sciences, to study it. A specific feature of geological objects is their exceptionally large scale and duration (tens and hundreds of millions of years) of the processes occurring in them. Therefore, in geological research the principle of actualism is widely used: observation of modern processes makes it possible to judge the course of the same processes in the distant geological past. The main traditional method of geological research is the route study of natural rock outcrops (outcrops) on the surface. The study begins with a description of the composition of rocks, burial conditions, etc. To more accurately determine the composition of rocks, appropriate samples (samples) are selected, which are then carefully studied in laboratory conditions using various physicochemical methods. In addition to route descriptions and mapping, geologists use materials from aerial photography, space surveys, well drilling, and much more. Environmental engineering specialists must have a good knowledge and study of the Earth on which people live and create. And only by studying the internal structure of the planet, the history of its formation, chemical composition, the development of geospheres, the main natural systems of the Earth, the structure and evolution of the earth’s crust and many other issues, can a person come closer to understanding the reasons that made our small planet Earth so unique for our residence. The earth lives its “restless life”, destined for it by the laws of nature and the Universe. Interest in the Earth as a whole has now increased immeasurably. When studying this discipline, future environmental specialists need to realize the main thing - by littering our Home, the Earth, we harm not so much nature (the Nature of the Earth will “live” for hundreds of millions of years without us), but, first of all, and only ourselves - after all, a person without The “quality” of Nature created by the Earth is truly doomed to extinction. 10
These sciences and methods of Earth sciences are a set of principles, approaches and methods used by Earth sciences for its study and knowledge. The sciences presented below most deeply approach the study of the Earth and methods of knowing it.
Biology- one of the natural sciences of life and a set of scientific disciplines that study living things. Biology is the study of all aspects of life, particularly the structure, functioning, growth, origin, evolution and distribution of living organisms on Earth. Biology examines general and particular patterns inherent in life in all its manifestations and properties: metabolism, reproduction, heredity, variability, adaptability, growth, development, irritability, mobility, etc.
Geography- a system of physical-geographical, economic-geographical and socio-geographical disciplines that study the geographical envelope of the Earth, natural-territorial, territorial-industrial and socio-territorial complexes, their interrelation and their components.
- Geography- a unified set of sciences that study the geographical envelope of the Earth and focus on identifying spatiotemporal patterns. The main objects of study of geographical sciences are the geosphere (biosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and soil cover) and geosystems (landscapes, natural areas, biogeocenoses...)
- Geography- a body of knowledge about the spatiotemporal features of any territory, object, phenomenon or process (geography of continents and oceans, geography of Russia, geography of the tundra, geography of the spread of bird flu, geography of karst processes in the N region)
Geodesy- a system of sciences about determining the shape and size of the Earth and about measurements on the earth's surface to display it on plans and maps, studying the gravitational field of the Earth, as well as geodesy - a branch of production associated with measurements on the ground.
Geology- a complex of sciences about the composition, structure, history of the development of the earth’s crust and the placement of minerals in it. Geology includes: stratigraphy, tectonics, regional geology, volcanology, mineralogy, petrography, lithology, geochemistry.
Geophysics- a complex of Earth sciences that study the internal structure, physical properties and processes occurring in its geospheres. Accordingly, geophysics includes solid Earth physics, atmospheric physics, and hydrophysics. Geophysics, in a broad sense, is the study of the physics of the solid Earth.
Geochemistry- the science of the chemical composition of the Earth and planets, the laws of distribution of elements and isotopes, the laws of their behavior, combination and migration in natural processes, the processes of formation of rocks, soils and natural waters.
Soil science— soil science. Soil science studies the origin, development, structure, composition, properties, geographical distribution and rational use of soils. It is part of natural science.
Cartography- science, including theory, methodology and technical techniques for creating and using geographical maps, globes, maps of the Moon, planets, starry sky, etc. The objects of cartography are the Earth, celestial bodies, starry sky and the Universe. The most popular fruits of cartography are figurative and symbolic models of space in the form of: flat maps, relief and volumetric maps, 3D maps, holographic maps, globes and panoramic maps. They can be presented on solid, flat or three-dimensional materials or as an image on a screen.
Ecology— the science of the composition, structure, properties, functional features and evolution of systems at various levels, population ecosystems and the biosphere. The science of the relationships of living organisms and their communities with each other and with the environment.
Based on Wikipedia ©
Geography is one of the most interesting and fascinating sciences. After all, it is directly related to travel and adventure. But what is the meaning of the term “geography”? The meaning of the word is quite interesting. And we will try to explain it in our article.
Earth Science
One of the oldest is geography. We will look at the meaning of the word a little later, but now we will get acquainted with the history of this discipline. It is known that the foundations of modern geography were laid back in the days of the ancient Hellenes. Their research was summarized and systematized by the ancient Greek scientist Ptolemy in the first century AD. It was in Greece that geography developed by leaps and bounds. In parallel, ancient Egypt was also interested in studying the Earth. Already in the 3rd millennium BC, the first sea expeditions across the waters of the Red and Mediterranean Seas were carried out here. Certain elements of geographical descriptions can also be found in the ancient books of India - the Vedas or the Mahabharata.
How did geography develop in subsequent centuries? The importance of this science especially increased in the 16th century, during the so-called Columbus and Magellan, James Cook and brought from their voyages a lot of new information and facts about our planet, which needed to be studied and systematized in detail. Geography in its modern academic form was founded in the first half of the 19th century by Alexander Humboldt and Karl Ritter. Today, humanity has already conquered the Moon and plans to land on Mars in the very near future. However, there are still many unexplored places on Earth - “white spots” where no human has ever set foot. Therefore, geographers in the 21st century will have something to occupy themselves on this planet.
Geography: meaning of the word, origin of the term
When did the term “geography” originate? Who invented it and assigned it to this science? Let's try to explain the meaning of the word "geography". This feminine term comes from two ancient Greek words: “geo” (earth) and “grapho” (I write, describe). That is, it can be translated into Russian as follows: “land description.”
The term “geography” was invented and introduced into science by the ancient Greek philosopher and scientist Eratosthenes. This happened around the 3rd century BC. How and when is the term “geography” used today? The meaning of the word today can be considered in two aspects. It can be used:
- As a science that combines many smaller disciplines. They study the Earth, the features of nature, the localization of population, minerals, etc. on its surface.
- As an area of distribution of a phenomenon or process across a territory. For example, oil reserves or the level of general literacy of people.
What does the science of geography study?
According to the universal definition, geography is the science that studies the so-called Earth. The latter, in turn, includes four sections: litho-, atmospheric-, hydro- and biosphere. But that is not all. Sometimes they add the technosphere, that is, everything that is created by human hands on the planet.
The main object of scientific research can be called natural laws and patterns of distribution and interaction of various components of the geographical shell (soils, rocks, vegetation, water, etc.). Modern science is divided into three large blocks: physical, social and The first studies nature, the second - the population and living conditions of people, the third - the features and patterns of economic development of territories and countries.
The meaning of the word "historical geography". Features of the scientific discipline
As mentioned above, geography is a complex science. It includes many different disciplines. One of them is historical geography. What is she studying?
Historical geography is a special section that tries to explain various historical processes and events through geographical knowledge. In other words, this science studies history through space. And a special place in it is given to geographical (territorial) factors.
Finally
Geography is considered one of the oldest sciences on Earth. The meaning of this term is very interesting. The word was invented in Ancient Greece. And it can be translated into Russian as “description of land”. The term was introduced back in the third century BC by the ancient Greek scientist Eratosthenes. By the way, it was he who first measured the parameters of our planet. And he did it quite accurately, without having modern instruments and technologies at hand.
Lately I've started hearing a lot of words starting with the prefix "-geo". As it turns out, most modern sciences that study our world have this prefix. Having decided to find out how many there are, I looked at my home encyclopedia. And there were really a lot of these sciences: I personally counted more than twenty! I will tell you about some of them now.
What sciences study the Earth?
Today, many sciences are engaged in studying our planet and its cosmic regions. And one of the leading ones is geology. She mainly deals description of the surface layers of the earth's crust, study of their composition, internal structure and origin.
Geological science unites within itself many disciplines that simply cannot exist separately from each other:
- geochemistry. Engaged in the study of chemical elements in various parts of the lithosphere;
- mineralogy. Has a connection with physics, studies the origin, composition and internal crystal structure of minerals;
- tectonics. Looks for connections between the movements of the solid layers of the Earth.
- geomorphology. Studies the relief, its forms and diversity. Particularly interested in the processes affecting him.
Also worth mentioning volcanology, paleontology and many other sciences that study the depths of our planet.
In addition, there are many more branches of geology, young and old.
Other sciences studying the Earth
As mentioned above, our planet is studied by a lot of individual sciences and their branches. Now I would like to list some of the most interesting sciences that are not branches of geology:
- geography. Its very name brings back memories of school lessons;
- geodesy. Calculates the laws by which our planet moves;
- gemology. A science specializing in the study of gems;
- hydrology. Studies natural waters and their connection with other layers of the Earth;
- meteorology. Simply put, the science of weather.
Relatively young is geoinformatics, it creates information programs that facilitate modern geological research. It helps a lot, for example, work geostatistics.
Plus a lot others independent sciences about our planet. It is worth noting once again that they are all, one way or another, connected to each other and share data with each other, helping mutual work.