Administrative reforms- complex of organ transformations government controlled, undertaken by Peter I the Great during his reign over the Russian Tsardom and the Russian Empire. Most of the administrative apparatus was either abolished or reorganized in accordance with European traditions, the experience of which the king learned during the Great Embassy of 1697-1698.
A complete list of reforms related to the administrative sphere can be studied in the table below.
Administrative transformations of Peter I
Briefly about the essence and content of administrative reforms
The main essence of almost all administrative reforms of Peter I was the construction of an absolutist form of monarchy, which involves the concentration of judicial, administrative and financial levers of control in the hands of the sovereign and the people entrusted to him.
Reasons for reforms of the state apparatus
- Peter I sought to build a rigid vertical of power. The creation of an absolutist monarchy was supposed to prevent possible conspiracies, riots and stop mass escapes of soldiers and peasants.
- The outdated administrative system hampered economic development and was slow in solving emerging problems.
- The Northern War with Sweden and plans to modernize industry required financial and human resources - new administrative institutions were needed to organize supplies.
Goals and objectives
administrative reforms
- Construction of a vertical power structure at the central and local levels, each of whose members solves specific problems and bears personal responsibility.
- A clearer delineation of the functions of government bodies.
- Administrative and territorial transformations that help improve the supply of the army and navy with the necessary equipment, provisions, and quartering.
- Introduction of the principle of collegial decision-making, development of uniform rules for office work of the administrative apparatus.
Reforms of the central government bodies of Peter I the Great
Creation of the Near Chancellery and abolition of the Boyar Duma
With the coming of Peter I to power, the Boyar Duma began to lose its powers, turning into another bureaucratic department. The tsar tried to change the established order (members of the boyar duma were elected from local nobles) and place people under his personal control in leadership positions. WITH 1701 its functions as the highest government body began to be performed by the so-called "Consultation of Ministers"- a council of heads of the most important government departments, among whom there were many non-boyars. After 1704, there are no references to meetings of the Borya Duma, although its official abolition did not take place.
Near office, was created in 1699 to control the financial costs of all orders, as well as administrative decisions, all the most important papers had to be signed by the main royal advisers and ministers, for which a special book of registered decrees was established.
Creation of the Governing Senate
March 2, 1711 Peter I created Governing Senate- the body of the highest legislative, judicial and administrative power, which was supposed to govern the country during the absence of the tsar (the Northern War occupied most of his attention). The Senate was completely controlled by the tsar and was a collegial body, the members of which were appointed by Peter I personally. February 22, 1711 for additional supervision of officials during the absence of the king, a position was created fiscal.
Creation of Boards
From 1718 to 1726 creation and further development Collegiums, the purpose of which Peter I saw as replacing the outdated system of orders, which were excessively slow in solving the problems of the state and, often, duplicated their own functions. As they were created, the boards absorbed orders. In the period from 1718 to 1720, the presidents of the colleges were senators and sat in the Senate, but subsequently, of all the colleges, representation in the Senate was reserved only for the most important ones: Military, Admiralty and Foreign Affairs.
The creation of the collegium system completed the process of centralization and bureaucratization of the state apparatus. A clear distribution of departmental functions, uniform standards of activity (according to the General Regulations) - all this significantly distinguished the new apparatus from the order system.
A comparison of the order and board systems is presented in the diagrams below.
Order system
Publication of the General Regulations
By decree of 9 May 1718 Peter I instructed the presidents of the Chamber, Revision, and Military Collegiums to begin developing General Regulations— office management system, called “collegiate”.
The regulations approved the collegial method of decision-making by the boards, determined the procedure for discussing cases, the organization of office work, and the relationship of the boards with the Senate and local authorities.
March 10, 1720 The General Regulations were issued and signed by the Tsar. This charter of the state civil service in Russia consisted of an introduction, 56 chapters containing the most general principles activities of the apparatus of all government institutions, and applications with the interpretation of foreign words included in it.
The procedure for considering cases in boards and the duties of officials according to the General Regulations of 1720
Creation of the Holy Synod
Towards the end of the Northern War with Sweden, Peter I began preparations for the introduction of a new type of administrative institutions - collegiums. Based on a similar principle, it was intended to establish the highest governing body of the Church, for which Bishop Feofan Prokopovich was instructed to develop Spiritual regulations. February 5, 1721 was published Manifesto on the establishment of the Theological College, later called "The Most Holy Governing Synod".
All members of the Synod signed the regulations and personally swore allegiance to the Tsar, and also pledged to protect the interests of the fatherland and Peter I. May 11, 1722- to control the activities of the Synod, the position of chief prosecutor was created, reporting to Peter I on the state of affairs.
Thus, the sovereign integrated the church into the mechanism of the state, making it one of the administrative institutions with certain responsibilities and functions. Abolition of the office of patriarch, who has ordinary people an influence comparable to that of Peter I himself, concentrated all power in the hands of the tsar and became another step towards strengthening the absolutist form of government.
Creation of the Secret Chancellery (Preobrazhensky Order)
Preobrazhensky order was founded by Peter I in 1686, as an office establishment for managing the Preobrazhensky and Semyonovsky amusing regiments. Gradually, as the power of Peter I strengthened, the order received more and more new functions - in 1702, the tsar issued a decree according to which all those who reported state crimes (treason, assassination attempt on the monarch) were sent to the Preobrazhensky order. Thus, main function, which this institution carried out - the prosecution of participants in anti-serfdom protests (about 70% of all cases) and opponents of the political reforms of Peter I.
The Secret Chancellery is one of the central governing bodies
The Secret Chancellery was established in February 1718 In Petersburg. It was created for the investigation into the case of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich, then it was transferred to other political cases of extreme importance; subsequently both institutions merged into one
Local government reforms
Provincial reform
The reform of local government began long before the creation of the collegiums - first stage of provincial reform already in 1708 year introduced the division of the state into provinces - this was done so that tax revenues from these areas would support the fleet, and recruits entering the service could be quickly transferred to the war.
Heads of administrative levels as a result of provincial reform
Second phase became possible after the difficult years of the war had passed, so Peter I December 7, 1718 approved the Senate's decision to create provinces and divide them into districts governed by zemstvo commissars. Thus, regional reform divided local government into three units: province, province, district.
Governors were appointed by Peter I personally and received full power over the governed provinces. The governors and provincial administrations were appointed by the Senate and reported directly to the collegiums. Four colleges (Kamer, Stat's office, Justits and Votchinnaya) had their own chamberists (tax control), commandants and treasurers on site. The head of the province was usually the voivode; zemstvo commissars were in charge of financial and police administration in the district.
Large cities of the provinces had a separate city administration - magistrates.
Provincial administrative bodies were built into the overall system
Urban reform
In 1720 Peter I creates Chief Magistrate, and in the next 1721 issues appropriate regulations for it. A division of cities into categories was introduced, and residents (townspeople) into categories.
Social (class) reforms of Peter I - briefly
As a result of the social reforms of Peter I, the position of the three main Russian classes - nobles, peasants and urban residents - changed greatly.
The service class nobles , after the reforms of Peter I, they began to perform military service not with the local militias they themselves recruited, but in regular regiments. The nobles now (in theory) began their service from the same lower ranks as the common people. People from non-noble classes, on an equal basis with nobles, could rise to the very top. high ranks. The procedure for obtaining service degrees has been determined since the time of the reforms of Peter I, no longer by birth and not by customs such as localism, but by the law published in 1722. Table of ranks" She established 14 ranks of army and civilian service.
To prepare for service, Peter I also obliged the nobles to undergo initial training in literacy, numbers and geometry. A nobleman who failed the established examination was deprived of the right to marry and receive an officer rank.
It should be noted that the landowner class, even after the reforms of Peter I, still had quite important service advantages over ordinary people. Admissions to military service nobles, as a rule, were assigned not to ordinary army regiments, but to privileged guards regiments - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky, stationed in St. Petersburg.
Major change in social status peasants was associated with the tax reform of Peter I. It was carried out in 1718 and replaced the previous household(from each peasant household) method of taxation per capita(from the heart). According to the results of the 1718 census, capitation tax.
This purely financial, at first glance, reform had, however, important social content. The new poll tax was ordered to be collected equally not only from peasants, but also from privately owned serfs who had not previously paid state taxes. This order of Peter I brought the social position of the peasantry closer to that of the powerless serfs. It predetermined the evolution of the view of serfs by the end of the 18th century not as sovereign tax people(as they were considered before), but how on complete master slaves.
Cities : the reforms of Peter I were aimed at organizing city government according to European models. In 1699, Peter I granted Russian cities the right of self-government through elected representatives burgomasters, which should have been town hall. The townspeople were now divided into “regular” and “irregular”, as well as into guilds and workshops according to their occupation. By the end of the reign of Peter I, the town halls were transformed into magistrates, which had more rights than town halls, but were elected in a less democratic way - only from “first-class” citizens. At the head of all magistrates was (from 1720) the capital's Chief Magistrate, who was considered a special collegium.
Peter I. Portrait by P. Delaroche, 1838
Military reform of Peter I - briefly
Administrative and government reforms of Peter I - briefly
Financial reforms of Peter I - briefly
Economic reforms of Peter I - briefly
Like most European figures of the second half of the 17th - early 18th centuries, Peter I followed the principles of mercantilism in economic policy. Applying them to life, he tried in every possible way to develop industry, built factories with state funds, encouraged such construction by private entrepreneurs through broad benefits, and assigned serfs to factories and manufactories. By the end of the reign of Peter I, there were already 233 factories in Russia.
In foreign trade the mercantilist policy of Peter I led to strict protectionism (high duties were introduced on imported products to prevent them from competing with Russian products). State regulation of the economy was widely used. Peter I contributed to the construction of canals, roads and other means of communication, and the exploration of mineral resources. The development of the mineral wealth of the Urals gave a powerful impetus to the Russian economy.
Church reform of Peter I - briefly
As a result of the church reform of Peter I, the Russian church, previously quite independent, became completely dependent on the state. After the death of Patriarch Adrian (1700), the king ordered don't elect a new patriarch, and the Russian clergy then did not have one until the council of 1917. Instead was appointed king“Locum Tenens of the Patriarchal Throne” - Ukrainian Stefan Yavorsky.
This “uncertain” state of affairs persisted until the final reform of church government, developed with the active participation of Feofan Prokopovich, was carried out in 1721. According to this church reform of Peter I, the patriarchate was finally abolished and replaced by a “spiritual college” - Holy Synod. Its members were not elected by the clergy, but appointed by the tsar - the church had now legally become completely dependent on secular power.
In 1701, the church's land holdings were transferred to the management of the secular Monastery Prikaz. After the synodal reform of 1721, they were formally returned to the clergy, but since the latter was now completely subordinate to the state, this return was of little significance. Peter I also placed monasteries under strict state control.
For all connoisseurs of Russian history, the name of Peter 1 will forever remain associated with the period of reform in almost all spheres of life of Russian society. And one of the most important in this series was military reform.
Peter the Great fought throughout the entire period of his reign. All his military campaigns were directed against serious opponents - Sweden and Turkey. And in order to wage endless grueling, and, moreover, offensive wars, a well-equipped, combat-ready army is needed. Actually, the need to create such an army was main reason military reforms of Peter the Great. The process of transformation was not immediate; each stage took place in its own time and was caused by certain events during the hostilities.
It cannot be said that the tsar began reforming the army from scratch. Rather, he continued and expanded the military innovations conceived by his father Alexei Mikhailovich.
So, let's look at the military reforms of Peter 1 briefly point by point:
Reform of the Streltsy army
In 1697, the Streltsy regiments, which were the basis of the army, were disbanded and subsequently completely abolished. They were simply not ready to conduct constant hostilities. In addition, the Streltsy riots undermined the tsar’s trust in them. Instead of the archers, three new regiments were formed in 1699, which were staffed by also disbanded foreign regiments and recruits.
Introduction of conscription
In 1699, a new system of army recruitment was introduced in the country - conscription. Initially, recruitment was carried out only as needed and was regulated by special decrees, which stipulated the currently required number of recruits. Their service was for life. The basis of recruitment was the tax-paying classes of peasants and townspeople. The new system made it possible to create a large standing army in the country, which had a significant advantage over European mercenary troops.
Changing the military training system
Since 1699, the training of soldiers and officers began to be carried out according to a single drill code. The emphasis was on constant military training. The first one was opened in 1700 military school for officers, and in 1715 - the Naval Academy in St. Petersburg.
Changes in the organizational structure of the army
The army was officially divided into three branches: infantry, artillery and cavalry. The entire structure of the new army and navy was reduced to uniformity: brigades, regiments, divisions. The administration of army affairs was transferred to the jurisdiction of four orders. Since 1718, the Military Collegium has become the highest military body.
In 1722, the Table of Ranks was created, which clearly structured the system military ranks.
Army rearmament
Peter I began to arm the infantry with flintlock rifles with a single caliber bayonet and swords. New samples were developed under him artillery pieces and ammunition. New types of ships were created.
As a result of the military reforms of Peter the Great, rapid economic growth began in Russia. After all, in order to provide such an army colossus, new steel and weapons factories and ammunition factories were needed. As a result, by 1707 the state’s dependence on the import of weapons from Europe was completely eliminated.
The main results of the reform were the creation of a large and well-trained army, which allowed Russia to begin active military competition with Europe and emerge victorious.
The sage avoids all extremes.
Lao Tzu
The reforms of Peter 1 are his main and key activities, which were aimed at changing not only the political, but also the social life of Russian society. According to Pyotr Alekseevich, Russia was very far behind Western countries in its development. This confidence of the king was further strengthened after he conducted the great embassy. Trying to transform the country, Peter 1 changed almost all aspects of the life of the Russian state, which had developed over centuries.
What was the central government reform?
The reform of central government was one of Peter's first reforms. It should be noted that this reformation lasted a long time, since it was based on the need to completely restructure the work of Russian authorities.
Peter I's reforms in the field of central government began back in 1699. On initial stage this change affected only the Boyar Duma, which was renamed the Near Chancellery. With this step, the Russian Tsar alienated the boyars from power and allowed power to be concentrated in a chancellery that was more pliable and loyal to him. It was important step, which required priority implementation, since it allowed the centralization of government of the country.
Senate and its functions
At the next stage, the king organized the Senate as the main government body in the country. This happened in 1711. The Senate has become one of the key bodies in governing the country, with the broadest powers, which include the following:
- Legislative activity
- Administrative activities
- Judicial functions in the country
- Control functions over other bodies
The Senate consisted of 9 people. These were representatives of noble families, or people whom Peter himself elevated. In this form, the Senate existed until 1722, when the emperor approved the position of prosecutor general, who controlled the legality of the activities of the Senate. Before this, this body was independent and did not bear any responsibility.
Creation of boards
The reform of central government continued in 1718. It took the reformer tsar three whole years (1718-1720) to get rid of the last legacy of his predecessors - orders. All orders in the country were abolished and collegiums took their place. There was no actual difference between the boards and orders, but in order to radically change the administrative apparatus, Peter went through with this transformation. In total, the following bodies were created:
- Collegium of Foreign Affairs. She was in charge foreign policy states.
- Military Collegium. She was engaged in ground forces.
- Admiralty College. Controlled navy Russia.
- Office of Justice. She handled litigation matters, including civil and criminal cases.
- Berg College. It controlled the country's mining industry, as well as factories for this industry.
- Manufactory Collegium. She was involved in the entire manufacturing industry of Russia.
In fact, only one difference between boards and orders can be identified. If in the latter the decision was always made by one person, then after the reform all decisions were made collectively. Of course, not many people decided, but the leader always had several advisers. They helped take correct solution. After introduction new system A special system was developed to control the activities of the boards. For these purposes, the General Regulations were created. It was not general, but was published for each board in accordance with its specific work.
Secret Chancery
Peter created a secret office in the country that dealt with state crimes. This office replaced the Preobrazhensky order, which dealt with the same issues. It was a specific government body that was not subordinate to anyone except Peter the Great. In fact, with the help of the secret chancellery, the emperor maintained order in the country.
Decree on unity of inheritance. Table of ranks.
The decree on unified inheritance was signed by the Russian Tsar in 1714. Its essence boiled down, among other things, to the fact that the courtyards that belonged to the boyar and noble estates were completely equalized. Thus, Peter pursued one single goal - to equalize the nobility of all levels that were represented in the country. This ruler is known for the fact that he could bring a person without a family closer to him. After signing this law, he could give each of them what they deserved.
This reform continued in 1722. Peter introduced the Table of Ranks. In fact, this document equalized rights in public service for aristocrats of any origin. This Table divided the entire public service into two large categories: civil and military. Regardless of the type of service, all government ranks were divided into 14 ranks (classes). They included all key positions, from simple performers to managers.
All ranks were divided into the following categories:
- 14-9 levels. An official who was in these ranks received the nobility and peasants into his possession. The only restriction was that such a noble could use the property, but not dispose of it as property. In addition, the estate could not be inherited.
- 8 – 1 level. This was the highest administration, which not only became the nobility and received full control of the estates, as well as serfs, but also received the opportunity to transfer their property by inheritance.
Regional reform
The reforms of Peter 1 affected many areas of the state’s life, including the work of local government bodies. The regional reform of Russia had been planned for a long time, but was carried out by Peter in 1708. It completely changed the work of the local government apparatus. The whole country was divided into separate provinces, of which there were 8 in total:
- Moscow
- Ingermanlandskaya (later renamed Petersburgskaya)
- Smolenskaya
- Kyiv
- Azovskaya
- Kazanskaya
- Arkhangelogorodskaya
- Simbirskaya
Each province was governed by a governor. He was appointed personally by the king. All administrative, judicial and military power was concentrated in the hands of the governor. Since the provinces were quite large in size, they were divided into districts. Later the counties were renamed provinces.
The total number of provinces in Russia in 1719 was 50. The provinces were governed by voivodes, who directed military power. As a result, the governor's power was somewhat curtailed, since the new regional reform took away all military power from them.
City government reform
Changes at the local government level prompted the king to reorganize the system of government in the cities. It was important question, as the urban population increased annually. For example, by the end of Peter’s life, there were already 350 thousand people living in cities, who belonged to different classes and estates. This required the creation of bodies that would work with each class in the city. As a result, a reform of city government was carried out.
Special attention in this reform was paid to the townspeople. Previously, their affairs were handled by governors. The new reform transferred power over this class into the hands of the Chamber of Burmisters. It was an elected body of power located in Moscow, and locally this chamber was represented by individual mayors. Only in 1720 was the Chief Magistrate created, which was responsible for control functions regarding the activities of the mayors.
It should be noted that the reforms of Peter 1 in the field of urban management introduced clear distinctions between ordinary citizens, who were divided into “regular” and “vile”. The former belonged to the highest inhabitants of the city, and the latter to the lower classes. These categories were not clear cut. For example, “regular townspeople” were divided into: rich merchants (doctors, pharmacists and others), as well as ordinary artisans and traders. All “regulars” enjoyed great support from the state, which provided them with various benefits.
The urban reform was quite effective, but it had a clear bias towards wealthy citizens who received maximum state support. Thus, the king created a situation in which life became somewhat easier for the cities, and in response, the most influential and wealthy citizens supported the government.
Church reform
The reforms of Peter 1 did not bypass the church. In fact, the new transformations finally subordinated the church to the state. This reform actually began in 1700, with the death of Patriarch Adrian. Peter forbade holding elections for a new patriarch. The reason was quite convincing - Russia entered the Northern War, which means that electoral and church affairs can wait for better times. Stefan Yavorsky was appointed to temporarily fulfill the duties of Patriarch of Moscow.
The most significant changes in the life of the church began after the end of the war with Sweden in 1721. The reform of the church came down to the following main steps:
- The institution of the patriarchate was completely eliminated; from now on there should be no such position in the church
- The Church was losing its independence. From now on, all its affairs were managed by the Spiritual College, created specifically for these purposes.
The spiritual college existed for less than a year. It was replaced by a new organ state power– Most Holy Governing Synod. It consisted of clergy who were personally appointed by the Emperor of Russia. In fact, from that time on, the church was finally subordinated to the state, and its management was actually carried out by the emperor himself through the Synod. To carry out control functions over the activities of the synod, the position of chief prosecutor was introduced. This was an official whom the emperor himself also appointed.
Peter saw the role of the church in the life of the state in the fact that it had to teach the peasants to respect and honor the tsar (emperor). As a result, laws were even developed that obliged priests to conduct special conversations with peasants, convincing them to obey their ruler in everything.
The significance of Peter's reforms
The reforms of Peter 1 actually completely changed the order of life in Russia. Some of the reforms actually brought a positive effect, while others created negative preconditions. For example, the reform of local government led to a sharp increase in the number of officials, as a result of which corruption and embezzlement in the country literally went off scale.
In general, the reforms of Peter 1 had the following meaning:
- The power of the state was strengthened.
- The upper classes of society were actually equal in opportunities and rights. Thus, the boundaries between classes were erased.
- Complete subordination of the church to state power.
The results of the reforms cannot be clearly identified, since they had many negative aspects, but you can learn about this from our special material.
The Russian Tsar (later Emperor) Peter I the Great believed that for the effective development of the state it was necessary to have full-fledged armed forces. Therefore, the transformations he began in the country could not but affect the military sphere. You can read about this direction of reform in our article.
The beginning of change
Since childhood, Peter I was interested in military affairs and European achievements. He practiced his skills in a playful way, creating personal unofficial troops (amusing regiments), a small shipyard, and a fortress. This later became the basis for real change.
Before considering the reforms themselves, it is worth briefly identifying the reasons for their initiation point by point:
- The reorganization begun by the predecessors of Peter the Great, although it prepared the Russian troops for further changes, they were still heterogeneous in their social composition and level of training;
- The Azov campaigns against Turkey (1695, 1696) confirmed the insufficient combat capability of the old-style army;
- To strengthen Russian statehood, Peter the Great was preparing for a war with Sweden (Northern War 1700-1721), victory in which would have been impossible without a timely reorganization of troops.
The main goal of changes in the military sphere was the creation of permanent, well-trained and equipped with everything necessary Russian armed forces.
During the Northern War, territories were conquered at the mouth of the Neva, where in 1703 the grandiose construction of St. Petersburg began, which became the new capital of the Russian Empire.
Rice. 1. Army of Peter the Great.
The sovereign began serious military reforms in 1698, although he laid the foundation for them back in 1694. The essence military reform Peter 1 can be defined as follows:
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- Application of new principles for recruiting the army and navy (recruitment);
- Bringing the troop structure to the European model (infantry, cavalry, artillery);
- Changing the principles of supporting the army (the population supported a regiment attached to their locality);
- Equipping soldiers with new weapons and uniforms (rifles with bayonets, mortars);
- Introduction of a unified system of troop management and promotion (charter, Military College, table of ranks, awards);
- Creation and improvement of a new fleet (shipyards were actively built for the Baltic Fleet);
- Opening of military educational institutions;
- Creation of military production (weapons factories).
Rice. 2. Fleet of Peter the Great.
Dates and events that were of fundamental importance for the implementation of military reform are collected in the table:
|
Year |
Event |
Meaning |
|
Kozhukhovsky campaign |
Checking the effectiveness of regiments built according to the European model |
|
|
Azov campaigns |
campaigns Confirmed the unsuitability of the old-style army; managed to capture the Azov fortress |
|
|
Admiralty order created |
Establishment of the first maritime management institution |
|
|
Disbandment of the old-style troops |
Preparing for changes in army structure |
|
|
Recruitment |
Trial recruitment of soldiers to organize new troops |
|
|
The Baltic Fleet was created |
Ensuring the security of maritime borders; active development of shipbuilding 1705 Recruitment introduced Constant recruitment of soldiers (1 person from 20-30 households for lifelong service) |
|
|
Maritime Academy opened |
Training of specialists for the fleet |
|
|
Military Regulations developed |
The appearance of a document clearly defining all the rights and obligations of the military 1717 The Admiralty Board was created Monitoring the activities of naval forces |
|
|
The Military Collegium was created |
Monitoring the activities of ground forces |
|
|
Maritime Charter developed |
Bringing fleet activities to uniform standards |
|
|
The Caspian Flotilla was created. Table of Ranks approved |
The military port in Astrakhan provided protection from the Caspian Sea Bringing military ranks to uniform standards |
|
|
Construction of military factories (Olonets, Tula) |
Self-sufficiency of the army and navy |
|
|
Opening of military schools |
Training Russian specialists in military affairs |
Consequences of innovations
The results of the military reforms of Peter 1 were:
- Victory in the Northern War, which brought Peter the Great the status of emperor, and Russia the long-awaited access to the Baltic Sea;
- A standing army that successfully fights with the advanced troops of European countries;
- Full-fledged combat-ready fleet;
- Development of national military production.
But, if we talk about negative aspects, then.