PAKISTAN. STORY
Pakistan is a young state that emerged in 1947, but Muslims have lived on its territory for more than a thousand years. They first appeared in South Asia as conquerors in the 8th century. and remained an influential political force until the 19th century.
Early Muslim states in India. In 710-716, troops under the command of the prominent Umayyad military leader Muhammad ibn Qasim captured Sindh and southern Punjab. Those who did not convert to Islam were forced by the new Arab authorities to pay a special poll tax for those of other faiths - jizia, but they were left with freedom in the practice of religious rites and in the sphere of cultural life. Hindus were not required to military service, but if they entered it, they were freed from the jizia and received the required salary and reward. Between 1000-1026, Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni undertook 17 campaigns in India, penetrating through the Indus Valley to the Gangetic Plain. His empire stretched from Samarkand and Isfahan to Lahore, but its western regions were lost to the heirs to the throne throughout the 11th century. Ghaznavid Punjab, which included the northwestern border regions and Sindh, can be considered the prototype of Pakistan. Numerous Muslim communities that settled in the Indus basin no longer considered these lands as conquered territory - it became their homeland. The rule of the Ghaznavids turned out to be fragile, and in 1185 the Indus Valley became part of the Ghurid state. This happened under Sultan Muiz-ud-din Muhammad, who managed to extend Muslim rule over the entire northwestern India, as well as Bengal and Bihar. The successors of Muiz-ud-din Muhammad, who was killed in 1206 in Punjab, managed to maintain control over the lands conquered in India. The period after his death in 1206 until the accession of Babur, who founded the Mughal dynasty in 1526, is known as the time of the Delhi Sultanate. Over more than 300 years, it was replaced by 40 sultans belonging to five Muslim dynasties: court slaves (1206-1290), Khilji (1290-1320), Tughlaks (1320-1414), Sayyids (1414-1451) and Lodi (1451-1451). 1526). Administrative posts in the Delhi state were occupied predominantly by Muslims, but Hindus were also involved in public service. Religious tolerance was shown towards the latter, and they had their own community courts (panchayats) to resolve civil cases. Islam strengthened its influence in India during this era. Conversion to it was generally done without violence, and the preaching of Muslim dogmas was carried out by mystics from Sufi orders, partly specially trained and selected to bring the light of the new faith to different areas of the subcontinent. Contacts between Hindus and Muslims led to the formation of the Urdu language, which arose on the basis of one of the dialects of northern India, enriched by Persian vocabulary. Hindi was formed on the same dialect basis, but was influenced by Sanskrit. In the 17th and 18th centuries. a modern Urdu literary standard emerged, which used Persian-Arabic graphics and adopted the creative traditions of Persian and Arabic writers and the ideas of Islam; Urdu has emerged as a powerful engine of Muslim culture in South Asia.
Mughal Empire. This state is known for its achievements in the field of culture, education and art. Created by Babur in 1526, it was consolidated by his grandson Akbar (c. 1556-1605). Akbar pursued a policy of conciliation with the Hindus, and efficient administration forms an important feature of the reign of this emperor. In 1579 the poll tax - jizia - was abolished. Hindu temples were taken under state protection. In 1580, Akbar announced the creation of a new religion - Din-i-illahi (Divine Religion), which was based on obvious monotheism, rejection of idolatry and polytheism. The goal was to ensure the loyalty of both Hindus and Muslims, especially those serving in the government apparatus. Under him, under the leadership of the Hindu Minister of Finance Todar Mal, the system of land taxation on which the English colonial authorities relied when developing their policies at the end of the 18th century was introduced. Akbar's successor, Emperor Jahangir (c. 1605-1627), also focused on creating a “secularized” state. Shah Jahan (c. 1628-1658) turned the empire into a Muslim power, but very tolerant of Hindus. The zealot Aurangzeb (c. 1658-1707) became the heir of his father Shah Jehan after defeating three brothers for the throne. Already in the first years of his reign, Aurangzeb issued several decrees that restored many Islamic customs. With age, the ruler's religious fanaticism intensified. Hindu temples, erected without imperial permission, were destroyed, and the construction of new ones was not allowed. In April 1679, the Hindus were again subject to jizia. The oppression caused great discontent among Hindus and a series of unrest. These included the revolt of the Satnami sect in Narnaul (southwest of Delhi) in 1672, the rebellion of the Sikh guru Tegh Bahadur in 1675, the Rajput uprising in 1679, and the civil war with the Marathas in 1680-1707. The wars waged by Aurangzeb caused the destruction of the good neighborly political and cultural ties that had arisen between Muslims and Hindus under Akbar. Aurangzeb's successors did not possess his abilities and energy. In the 18th century Hindu, Muslim and Sikh communities began to fight for leadership, but were unable to resist the British, who filled the political vacuum created by the decline of the Mughal Empire. British India and the demand for the creation of Pakistan. In the 18th and 19th centuries. England extended its control over the whole of India, including the territories that later became part of Pakistan. Bengal was conquered in 1757, Sindh in 1843 and Punjab in 1849. In 1857, an anti-British sepoy uprising broke out, insisting on the transfer of power to Emperor Bahadur Shah II. The revolt was suppressed and the Mughal dynasty ceased to exist. After 1857, Sayyid Ahmad Shah (1817-1898) became the undisputed leader of the Islamic community in India, who insisted on peaceful relations with Britain and the adoption of the Western education system. In 1875, Ahmad Shah founded a Muslim university in Aligarh. In 1883, he managed to convince the British colonial authorities to organize separate electoral curiae for Hindus and Muslims. In 1887, Sayyid Ahmad Shah insisted that adherents of Islam separate themselves from the Indian National Congress party, which arose in 1885. The partition of Bengal in 1905 prompted Ahmad Shah's followers to demand a separate quota for Muslims in future constitutional issues. Rejecting the political position of their late leader, his adherents formed the All-Indian Muslim League in December 1906 in Dhaka, which later began the struggle for the formation of Pakistan. The Minto-Morley reforms of 1909 provided for special representation of Muslims and other minorities in elected bodies. Later, at the insistence of Muslims, this principle was taken into account in the plans of the British government, expressed in the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms (1919) and the Indian Administration Act (1935). In the 1920s, Hindus and Muslims formed a united front under the ideological leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, who launched a campaign of civil disobedience in 1921 to protest Britain's hostile stance towards the Turkish Caliphate. The 1920s and 1930s saw the rise of the political authority of Muhammad Ali Jinnah (1876-1948) and the poet-thinker Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1938), who prepared the Islamic public to accept the idea of the partition of India. Addressing the Muslim League session in Allahabad on December 29, 1930, Iqbal spoke in favor of a separate Islamic state in the subcontinent, but did not address the question of the future of Bengal. In Lahore, on March 23, 1940, the Muslim League, led by Jinnah, declared the formation of Pakistan as its goal. This name itself was a neologism proposed by Chaudhuri Rahmat Ali, a Muslim intellectual who then lived in Cambridge (Great Britain). The Lahore Resolution of 1940 declared: “areas where Muslims constitute a numerical majority, as is the case in the northwestern and eastern zones of India, should be united to constitute independent states in which the administrative territorial units that constitute them should have autonomy and sovereignty.” In 1946, a special government mission sent from Great Britain developed a plan to preserve the integrity of India, which provided for regional autonomy for the Muslim population. It was proposed to identify two geographical zones with a Muslim majority: one of them was to cover north-western Balochistan, North-West Frontier Province, Punjab and Sindh, the other - north-eastern Assam and Bengal. The rest of India was treated as a single entity with a Hindu majority. It was recommended that the central government be given only minimal rights. However, this plan, adopted by the League, was rejected by the Congress, after which the partition of British India became inevitable. On August 14, 1947, two new independent states appeared on the political map of the world - India and Pakistan. Pakistan during the period of independence before the separation of Bangladesh: 1947-1971. After independence, Pakistan faced difficulties in forming stable political institutions. From 1947 to 1958, the country had a parliamentary system in accordance with the Government of India Act (1935) and the Declaration of Independence (1947), but in the absence of direct elections to the highest legislative body. In 1958, a military regime was established led by General (later Field Marshal) Ayub Khan, who was constitutionally elected President of Pakistan in 1962. In 1969, martial law was introduced in the country, and General Yahya Khan came to power, who resigned in 1971. The partition of British India in 1947 gave rise to violent clashes between Hindus and Muslims, and huge flows of refugees: about 6.5 million Muslims crossed from India to Pakistan and about 4.7 million Hindus and Sikhs moved in the opposite direction. It is possible that up to 500 thousand people died due to religious clashes and subsequent migrations. The Kashmir conflict has become an obstacle to normalization of the situation in the subcontinent. Until 1947, there were 584 principalities in British India, which were faced with the question of whether to belong to Muslim Pakistan or Hindu India. In October 1947, the Maharaja of Kashmir, a Hindu by religion, made a choice in favor of India. Armed clashes between the Indian and Pakistani armed forces that began in 1947 continued until the end of 1948, when, with the help of the UN, a ceasefire line was established. Proposals to hold a referendum among the people of Kashmir on the future of the princely state have not been supported by India, and it remains divided. In 1965, Pakistani troops resumed hostilities in Kashmir, which were stopped thanks to the mediation efforts of the USSR. Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistani President Ayub Khan met in Tashkent in January 1966 and agreed to withdraw their troops to the ceasefire line. After much debate, the Constituent Assembly in 1949, guided by the judgment of Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan, approved a resolution stating that “Muslims should be guided in their personal and public lives by the teachings and requirements of Islam as set out in Holy Quran and Sunnah." The constitution adopted in March 1956 proclaimed Pakistan an Islamic Republic and stated that the president of the country must be a Muslim. This article was preserved in the 1962 constitution, which was in force under Ayub Khan. In this regard, the Advisory Council of Islamic Ideology was formed, and also opened Institute for the Study of Islam. The Council was charged with advising Muslims on how to organize their lives in accordance with religious principles, and the Institute interpreted these principles in the context of existing realities. The debate over electoral curias was of serious importance in view of the fact that about 20% of the population of East Pakistan were Hindus. In 1950-1952, laws were passed on elections to provincial legislative assemblies. It was decided that in the presence of a clear Muslim majority, it would be advisable to identify special electoral groups: Christians and “general” in a number of areas of West Pakistan and Christians, Buddhists, scheduled castes ( "untouchables") and "general" in East Pakistan. Each of these groups sent its representatives to the legislative bodies using its own electoral lists. As a result, in the elections in the eastern province in March 1954, among the 309 deputies there were 72 non-Muslims. Under Ayub Khan (1958-1969), indirect parliamentary elections were held through local governments (the so-called “foundations of democracy” system). At the lower level, there was no separate voting, which practically led to the fact that candidates from non-Muslim communities almost never got into these bodies. In the year of the country's independence, West Pakistan included 4 provinces and 10 princely states. The Bengalis insisted that East Pakistan had greater rights to autonomy than the territorial administrative units of West Pakistan and, due to its superior population, should have priority in resolving state issues. To meet such demands, all 14 administrative entities that were part of it were united into one province in West Pakistan. This event took place in October 1955, then an agreement was reached on equal representation of residents of both parts of the country in the national parliament. East Pakistan had good reasons to express its discontent. Although more than half of the country's total population was concentrated in the province, government funds were directed primarily to West Pakistan, which received the bulk of funds received in aid from abroad. A disproportionately small number of East Pakistanis were in the government apparatus - 15% of its composition, as well as in the country's armed forces - 17%. The central government clearly patronized West Pakistani industrialists in foreign exchange transactions, in issuing import licenses, loans and grants, and in granting construction permits for new industries. Industrial development after 1953 took place largely against the backdrop of economic and military support from the United States, which was focused on protecting West Pakistan from a possible Soviet threat. In February 1966, the leader of the Awami League, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, put forward his 6-point program. It provided for: 1) the responsibility of the federal government to the parliament formed on the basis of free and fair elections, 2) limiting the functions of the center to matters of defense and foreign affairs, 3) the introduction of separate currencies (or independent financial accounts) for each of the two provinces while controlling interprovincial movement of capital, 4) transferring the collection of all types of taxes from the center to the provinces, which support the federal government with their contributions, 5) providing both parts of the country with the opportunity to independently conclude foreign trade agreements and have their own foreign currency accounts in connection with this, and 6) creating their own in the provinces irregular troops. Agitation was launched in support of these six points in the eastern province, and Mujibur, along with 34 like-minded people, was arrested in 1968 on charges of developing a plan to organize a separatist uprising with the help of India. At the beginning of 1969, a nationwide protest campaign began against the regime of President Ayub Khan. In February, charges against Mujibur and his associates were dropped. Ayub Khan convened a Round Table to meet with opposition leaders, at which Mujibur proposed to draw up a new constitution based on these six points. Ayub Khan, who resigned on March 25, was replaced by General Yahya Khan, who declared a state of emergency in the country. Yahya Khan restored 4 traditional provinces in West Pakistan and scheduled the first direct general elections to the national parliament in the country's history on December 7. In it, the deputies from East Pakistan were virtually guaranteed a majority thanks to the adopted principle of “one voter, one vote.” Mujibur's Awami League won 160 of the 162 seats earmarked for the eastern province. This landslide victory was achieved as a result of the long-running Six Point campaign and strong criticism of the central government for its poor assistance to the victims of the devastating hurricane that swept through East Pakistan on November 7, 1970. The Pakistan People's Party (PPP), led by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, won 81 of West Pakistan's 138 seats. Mujibur announced that the new constitution should be based on the six points of his program. In response, Bhutto informed on February 17, 1971 that the PPP would boycott the National Assembly if it did not get the opportunity to discuss constitutional reform. As a result, Yahya Khan postponed the opening of the parliamentary session scheduled for March 3. The Awami League said this indicated collusion between the President and the PPN leader. Mujibur called a general strike in East Pakistan on March 2, and the population took to the streets of Dhaka and other cities in the province. The sheikh called for refraining from paying taxes until power passes to the representatives of the people. Yahya Khan expressed his desire to convene a new Round Table for negotiations, but Mujibur rejected the proposal. On March 15, a parallel government, the Awami League, was established in East Pakistan. East Bengal military formations entered into an alliance with Mujibur. On 16 March, Yahya Khan held a meeting in Dhaka on constitutional issues with Mujibur and Bhutto, but failed in his attempt to reach a compromise. On the night of March 25, 26, Yahya Khan ordered the army to begin military action in East Pakistan, banned the Awami League and arrested Mujibur. A full-scale war broke out between the forces of the central government and the rebel forces of the Mukti Bahini, who entered into the struggle to create the independent state of Bangladesh in place of East Pakistan. Millions of refugees flocked to India. By the summer of 1971, the Pakistani army managed to establish control over the territory of East Pakistan. But India supported the armed rebels, and in November took direct part in the hostilities. The third India-Pakistan war escalated international relationships, since the USSR supported the position of India, and the USA and China supported Pakistan. On December 16, 1971, Indian troops entered Dhaka, and Pakistani units were forced to capitulate. Bangladesh was declared an independent state and Mujibur Rahman became its president.
Pakistan after 1971. Yahya Khan resigned on December 20, 1971. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto became the President of Pakistan. One of his first steps was to agree with Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in Shimla that the Indian army would leave Pakistani territory. Trade and transport links between both countries were also restored. Pakistan's relations with the United States have improved, and Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Libya and Iran have also begun to provide assistance. Bhutto abolished martial law, and in April 1973 a draft of a new constitution was approved, restoring the parliamentary system of governing the country. The powers of the provinces were expanded. Electoral curiae for religious minorities were revived, while maintaining the official primacy of Islam. Adhering to the idea of “Islamic socialism,” Bhutto carried out the nationalization of all private banks, educational institutions, insurance companies and heavy industry enterprises. Agrarian reform led to the transfer of a significant share of cultivated areas to landless tenants. The salaries of those employed in industry, military personnel and officials were increased. Large funds were aimed at improving living conditions in rural areas. All these events, carried out against the backdrop of a fourfold increase in prices for imported oil, were accompanied by a doubling in 1972-1976 of prices for consumer goods in the domestic market, which clearly reduced Bhutto’s popularity in the cities. Bhutto had difficulty interacting with Wali Khan's People's National Party (PNP) and the Jamiat-i Ulama-i Islam party, which in 1972 formed cabinets in the North-West Frontier Province and Balochistan, respectively. In February 1973, Bhutto dismissed these governments, banned the PNP and arrested its leaders. In March 1977, elections to the country's parliament and provincial legislative assemblies were held. The opposition refused to accept the official results of the vote and organized a protest movement, during which more than 270 people died. On July 5, 1977, the army removed Bhutto, and martial law was established in the country. General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq took over the post of Chief Military Administrator, and in 1978 became President of Pakistan. Bhutto was accused of planning the murder of political enemies and was put on trial, by which he was executed by hanging in 1979. Zia followed the line of Islamization and sought to bring the country's criminal legislation into line with the norms of traditional Muslim law. Some legal procedures prescribed by Islam in taxation and banking were restored. In 1979, Zia participated in the meeting of heads of state of the Non-Aligned Movement held in Havana. But relations between Pakistan and the United States remained friendly, growing closer after Soviet military intervention in the Afghan civil war. Zia began to gradually create new political structures. In December 1981, the creation of the Federal Advisory Council was announced. On a non-partisan basis, elections to local government bodies were held in the fall of 1983. They were boycotted by opposition forces and there was serious unrest in Sindh. In December 1984, Zia organized a referendum that approved the Islamization strategy and retained Zia's presidency for a five-year term. In February 1985, elections were held, also on a non-partisan basis, for parliament and provincial legislatures, after which Zia decided to form a civilian government. Muhammad Khan Junejo, leader of the Pakistan Muslim League (Pagaro faction), which turned out to be the largest parliamentary group in the National Assembly, was appointed prime minister. In December 1985, Zia abolished martial law and reinstated the 1973 constitution with amendments that increased the power of the president by giving him the power to dissolve the government and legislatures of the country and provinces. The law on parties, adopted a few months later, allowed them to operate legally, subject to compliance with official regulations. Opposition organizations have intensified their attacks on the Zia regime, demanding regular elections on time and insisting on the full restoration of constitutional norms. The most authoritative leader of this part of society was the head of the PPN, Benazir Bhutto, daughter of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto. In May 1988, Zia achieved his greatest foreign policy success when Soviet Union began the withdrawal of Afghan troops. Although the Muslim rebels fought with American weapons, Pakistan provided them with the necessary bases on its territory. The security of Pakistan's northeastern borders has significantly strengthened since the withdrawal of Soviet army from Afghanistan and the weakening of the left's positions there. At the end of May, Zia dismissed Junejo's government and dissolved the National Assembly due to disagreements over control of the armed forces. New elections were scheduled for November 1989. Zia was at the height of power when he became the victim of a mysterious plane crash on August 17, 1988. Several prominent generals died with him. Senate Chairman Ghulam Ishaq Khan, a civilian, who assumed the duties of president, announced the upcoming elections in November. In October, the Supreme Court ruled that candidates could run for political parties. The elections were won by the PPP, which received a relative majority in parliament, and its leader Benazir Bhutto took over as prime minister on December 1, 1988. The new cabinet achieved some success in implementing a program of social and political reforms, but unexpectedly in August 1990, Ishaq Khan sent Bhutto to resignation. Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi, a former ally of Bhutto, was appointed prime minister. In the parliamentary elections in October 1990, the Bhutto-led PPP suffered a sensitive defeat from the Islamic Democratic Alliance, the leading force of which, the Pakistan Muslim League, was in alliance with the Jamaat-e Islami party. League leader Mian Nawaz Sharif was nominated as Prime Minister. In 1992, Jamaat-e Islami left the alliance, and soon major disagreements emerged between Ishaq Khan and Sharif, as a result of which the latter was dismissed on April 18, 1993. The presidential decree was, however, declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of Pakistan, and on May 26 Sharif returned to his post. But the contradictions were not eliminated, since Sharif wanted to remove from the text of the Constitution the provisions that gave the president the right to dissolve the highest bodies state power . The conflict was resolved on July 17 by the military, which removed both Sharif and Ishaq Khan. The interim government was headed by the former vice-president of the World Bank Moin Qureshi, the functions of the head of state were assigned to the chairman of the Senate. The PPP won the new elections, and in October 1993 Bhutto returned to the position of prime minister. In November, parliament elected one of the leading PPP functionaries, Sardar Farooq Ahmad Khan Leghari, as president of the country. Accusing the government of incompetence, corruption and violation of the law, Leghari dismissed it and dissolved parliament and provincial legislatures on November 5. Bhutto and her husband Asif Zardari were accused of concealing income in the UK, Switzerland and other countries. The oldest politician, Meraj Khalid, became the prime minister of the new government. In February 1997, elections brought a landslide victory for the PML, which won over 2/3 of the parliamentary seats in the National Assembly, and gave Sharif the opportunity to form a cabinet of ministers. He managed to legally deprive the president of the right to remove the government and terminate the activities of legislative bodies. Leghari was forced to resign in December 1997 due to disagreement with the prime minister on this issue, as well as on the issue of the composition of the Supreme Court. That same month, retired judge Rafik Tarar was elected as the country's new president. In May 1998, Pakistan conducted atomic tests in response to similar tests in India carried out a month earlier. The United States applied sanctions against both countries, which particularly affected Pakistan with its weak economy. The Prime Minister faced not only economic difficulties, but also opposition to his proposed constitutional changes, according to which the tenets of Islam should play a dominant role in the interpretation of the laws of the Constitution. Since the authorities have the opportunity to interpret which of their decrees are based on Islamic law, the federal executive bodies are effectively removed from the legal control of the state. Opponents of the government point out that this creates a threat of the revival of a dictatorial regime in Pakistan. In early October 1999, a military coup took place in Pakistan, led by General Pervez Musharraf, who removed Sharif. The entire executive power was removed, both at the federal and local levels, in all four provinces. As a result of these events, Pakistan's membership of the Commonwealth was suspended; a number of international organizations (including the IMF) warned of a possible cessation of financial assistance if democratic government is not restored.
Collier's Encyclopedia. - Open Society. 2000 .
The development of other countries of the peninsula - Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka - after the elimination of British rule is characterized by political instability associated with unresolved socio-economic problems, as well as ethno-confessional conflicts.
Creation of the State of Pakistan. Internal political development in 1947 - 50s. On August 15, 1947, the formation of the largest of these independent states, Pakistan, was proclaimed on the territory of South Asia, the first governor-general of which was the leader of the Muslim League, Muhammad Ali Jinnah. The religious-communal principle underlying the partition of British India led to the inclusion of areas with a numerical predominance of Muslim populations in Pakistan.
Important feature In the political development of Pakistan, religious and communal parties and groups that put forward slogans of Islamization of the state played a significant role in the public life. The first constitution of Pakistan, adopted in 1956, restored the federal principle of the country's government. Pakistan was declared a federal republic consisting of two provinces - West Pakistan and East Pakistan. The head of state was the president, elected for a term of 5 years. Executive power belonged to the cabinet of ministers, which was responsible to the National Assembly (parliament).
The instability and weakness of civilian governments led to a military coup in Pakistan on October 8, 1958, which brought the army led by General Ayub Khan to power. At first, the military regime was purely repressive in nature: a ban was introduced on rallies, demonstrations, strikes, and the free press, mass arrests were made, and severe penalties were imposed for violation of the orders of the military administration, including the death penalty.
Main events of the military regime. A new political crisis and the separation of East Bengal from Pakistan. However, since the beginning of the 60s, the authorities began to pursue a more flexible policy, partially legalizing party and political life in the country. The new government set a course for accelerated development of capitalism in industry and agriculture. Agrarian reform limited the size of landownership and improved the technical basis of agricultural production.
On March 1, 1962, the country's second constitution was proclaimed, according to which the form of government changed: Pakistan became a presidential republic. The President was given exclusive legislative and executive powers compared to the National Assembly. As a result of the elections of January 1965, the former head of the military government, Ayub Khan, became president. The ruling Muslim League won a majority of seats in the National Assembly and formed the government. The Muslim League was opposed by a number of opposition parties, the largest of which were the Awami League (Awami League), an organization fighting for the separation of East Bengal from Pakistan, and the Pakistan People's Party (PPP), led by Z.A. Bhutto.
Strengthening political opposition and growth mass movement for the secession of East Bengal became one of the main reasons for the political crisis in Pakistan in 1969 and the rise to power of General Yahya Khan, who introduced martial law in the country. On the night of March 25-26, 1971, East Bengal was occupied and government troops opened fighting against armed groups of East Bengalis. The civil war took on a stormy and bloody character. On March 26, the first day of the war, the People's Republic of Bangladesh was proclaimed. India was drawn into an armed conflict in early December 1971. The position of Pakistani troops in Bangladesh soon became hopeless and Pakistan surrendered on 16 December. The independence of Bangladesh has become a fait accompli.
70s: Civil administration in power. "21 point program". The creation of a new independent state changed the map of South Asia, the geopolitical situation in the region and the further development of Pakistan. On December 20, 1971, General Yahya Khan resigned, handing over power to Bhutto, the leader of the PPP. The year 1972 marked the beginning of a new stage in the history of Pakistan, which was characterized by the following changes. First, after many years of military regimes of Ayub Khan (1958-1969) and Yahya Khan (1969-1971), power was transferred to a civil administration. Secondly, the country continued its development within changed geographical boundaries. Thirdly, there was a regrouping of party and political forces, as a result of which the leadership in the political life of the PPN emerged, which proposed the country a new program of socio-economic transformations (the “21 Point Program”), designed for further capitalist development and modernization of the social structure of society. The general strategy of economic development included the creation of a significant public sector, the adoption of anti-monopoly legislation, the nationalization of insurance companies, private banks, cotton export trade, and agrarian reform. It differed significantly from the course of the military administration, aimed at the priority development of the private sector while providing privileges to large capital. The foreign policy course also became different. Pakistan withdrew from SEATO and the British Commonwealth of Nations, normalized relations with India, recognized Bangladesh, and expanded international cooperation with the USSR. The most important component of the ideological platform of the PPN was the concept of “Islamic socialism.” In August 1973, a new (third) constitution was adopted, according to which Pakistan was declared a parliamentary federal republic. Islam was proclaimed the state religion of the country, which was reflected in the new official name - the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Direct secret elections of legislative bodies were established. The head of state was declared to be the president, elected by secret vote of parliament, but unlike the previous period of the presidential republic, he did not have full power. In the exercise of his powers he had to act on the advice of the Prime Minister, whose recommendations were binding. Presidential decrees also had to be signed by the prime minister, who is the leader of the majority faction in parliament.
However, in the second half of the 70s, the factional struggle in the PPN sharply intensified, ultimately complicating the political life of the country. Opposition groups opposed the ratification of the agreement with India, recognition of Bangladesh, and radical measures in the economy. In the context of a sharp increase in political instability, on July 5, 1977, a military coup took place in the country and a military regime led by Zia ul-Haq was established for the third time. The PPN was subjected to repression. A significant part of its leadership was imprisoned, and party leader Z.A. Bhutto was executed on April 4, 1979, on charges of treason.
Military regime of Zia ul-Haq. The establishment of the military regime of Zia ul-Haq in Pakistan significantly changed the country's domestic and foreign policy. A number of previously nationalized enterprises were returned to private capital, and private investments were allowed in those industries that were allocated to the public sector. A state of emergency was declared in the country and military tribunals were created. On September 13, 1978, Zia ul-Haq became the president of the country, retaining the post of Chief Military Administrator.
In January 1982, the Federal Consultative Council was formed to replace the abolished National Assembly. In 1985, Zia ul-Haq radically changed the constitution, giving himself, as president, exclusive rights to appoint and remove the prime minister, commanders of the military branches and members of the Supreme Court. Thus, there was another transition from a parliamentary system of government to a presidential one.
Despite the existing ban on opposition activities, the PPN managed to maintain its influence in the country and organize a “movement for the restoration of democracy” and the 1973 constitution. The PPN was supported by other parties and movements seeking to fully legalize their activities.
The continued instability of the country's internal political life in the late 80s - 90s. In 1988, major changes occurred in the internal political life of Pakistan. After 11 years of General Zia ul-Haq's regime, the country returned to civilian democratic rule.
The PPN government came to power. Benazir Bhutto, daughter of Z.A., became Prime Minister. Bhutto. The elections took place four months after the death of Zia ul-Haq in a plane crash in August 1988. Having accepted the election results and the creation of a civilian government, the military, along with right-wing Muslim parties, maintained strong positions in the administrative apparatus, parliament and other bodies. Their protege was General Ghulam Ishak Khan. Under these conditions, B. Bhutto's government actually had no freedom of action. Taking advantage of the tense internal situation and the aggravation of relations with India over the Kashmir issue, the president dissolved parliament in early August 1990, declaring a state of emergency, and removed the government of B. Bhutto, accusing it of incapacity, corruption and other abuses. The army actively participated in the “presidential coup”. In April 1993, Ghulam Ishaq Khan removed the new Prime Minister of Pakistan, Nawaz Sharif, and in the following years this phenomenon became a strong part of the political process in Pakistan. As in 1990, the reasons for the removal were the desire to pass a constitutional amendment that would deprive the president of special rights to remove the prime minister, and attempts to constitutionally limit the role of the army in the political process. Purely military regimes at the turn of the 80s and 90s were replaced by tough presidential rule, civilian in form, but provided with strong support from the army. B. Bhutto's coming to power in 1990 (as well as her subsequent return to the post of minister and another resignation) did not disrupt the general trend towards authoritarianism.
Questions and tasks
1. Tell us about the features of the socio-economic development of Pakistan.
2. What processes of internal life contributed to the establishment of the military regime of Zia ul-Haq?
3. What trends are characteristic of modern political life in Pakistan?
Geographical names of the world: Toponymic dictionary. - M: AST. Pospelov E.M. 2001.
Pakistan
(Pakistan), Islamic Republic of Pakistan , state in South. Asia, formed in 1947 as a result of the partition of British India. P. included two geographically separated units - Zap. and Vost. P. In 1971, on the territory of the East. P. an independent state was formed Bangladesh . Pl. modern Pakistan 796.1 thousand km², capital – Islamabad . The head of the state is the president, the parliament consists of 2 chambers - the National. Assembly and Senate. Population: about 145 million people. (2001), density 166 people. per 1 km². Over 97% are Muslims (77% Sunni, 20% Shia). Punjabis (65%), Sindhis (13%), Pashtuns (8%), Balochis, Muhajirs (emigrants from India). In 1978–80 3 million people fled from Afghanistan to Pakistan. Official languages – Urdu, English. More than 35% of citizens, the largest cities – Karachi , Lahore , Faisalabad , Rawalpindi , Multan , Hyderabad. Indo-Gangetic Plain on the E. and SE., spurs Hindu Kush us., Iranian plateau , bordered by mountains Suleymanov, Kirthar And Mekran , to the W. and SW. B.h. precipitation falls in July–September; on rivers (main Indus with tributaries Sutlej And Kabul ) summer high water, floods. Extensive network of irrigation canals. The village takes the leading place in the economy. farming (wheat, rice, sugar cane, cotton). Natural resources are mined. gas, oil, coal, chromites, rock salt. The main branch of industry is text, there is machinery; metal, chemical, food, leather industry Handicrafts and crafts. In internal In transportation, the leading role is played by railways. transport, main seaport - Karachi. Cotton, textiles, clothing, rice, leather, and carpets are exported. Cash unit – Pakistani rupee.
Dictionary of modern geographical names. - Ekaterinburg: U-Factoria. Under the general editorship of academician. V. M. Kotlyakova. 2006 .
Islamic Republic of Pakistan, a state in South Asia. Formed in 1947 after the partition of India. It has existed within modern borders since 1971.
In the southwest, the shores of Pakistan are washed by the Arabian Sea, in the west the country borders on Iran, in the northwest - on Afghanistan, in the northeast - on Jammu and Kashmir (which is claimed by both India and) and in the east - on India. . The northern and western regions of Jammu and Kashmir - the so-called - are under the control of Pakistan. Azad Kashmir (i.e. Free Kashmir).
NATURE
Terrain. Within Pakistan, two large orographic regions are clearly distinguished - the Indus Plain (the western part of the Indo-Gangetic Plain) and the mountains and hills bordering it from the west and north, belonging to the systems of the Iranian Plateau and the Hindu Kush and the Himalayas, formed mainly during the era of Alpine orogenesis. The Indus Plain arose on the site of a vast foothill marginal trough, to which considerable reserves of natural gas and oil are confined. Significant deposits of brown coal, chromite ore and other minerals have been discovered in the mountains.
The Indus Plain is one of the largest alluvial plains in the tropical zone, stretching from the foothills of the Himalayas to the Arabian Sea for 1200 km with a width of up to 550 km. Almost its entire territory is located below 200 m and is characterized by a monotonous flat topography. Within its boundaries, three parts are distinguished: northern - Punjab (or Pyatirechye), formed by the Indus and its five large tributaries (Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej); Sindh - middle and lower reaches of the Indus; and the Thar Desert, located east of Sindh.
In the north of the plain there are numerous debris fans cut by rivers. In Sindh, in the interfluves, traces of an ancient river network have been preserved, indicating greater waterlogging of the plain in the past. The Indus Delta is formed by several active channels, dead estuaries and a series of ancient sandy beach bars. In the Thar Desert there are dunes, dunes, sand ridges combined with salt marshes, takyrs and salt lakes in depressions. The absolute height of this area is from 100 to 200 m. From the south, the desert is framed by the saline lowlands of the Greater Rann of Kutch, flooded by sea tides and during heavy rainfall.
The mountains of Pakistan are young folded ridges composed of crystalline shales, limestones, sandstones and conglomerates. The highest ridges are dissected by river valleys and gorges and crowned with snowfields. In the far north, the axial ridges of the Hindu Kush partially extend into the borders of Pakistan with the Tirichmir peak (7690 m), which is the highest point of the country. To the east is the Hinduraj ridge, the southwestern end of which is separated from the border ridge Spingar by the Khyber Pass (1030 m) - the most important pass used for communication between Peshawar and Kabul. In the northeast, the western spurs of the Himalayas enter the territory of Pakistan. In the north of Pakistan, between the Indus Plain and the mountains, there is the Potwar sandstone plateau with average heights of 300–500 m, bordered on the south by the Salt Range (up to 1500 m in height).
The western part of Pakistan is occupied by the plateau and mountains of Balochistan, which represent the southeastern frame of the Iranian Plateau. The average heights of these mountains usually do not exceed 2000–2500 m. Such are, for example, the Suleiman Mountains, elongated in the submeridional direction and steeply plunging towards the Indus Valley. However, in the north of these mountains there are also higher individual peaks (up to 3452 m). The meridional Kirthar ridge with steep slopes facing the Indus Valley almost reaches the coast of the Arabian Sea and drops from 2440 m in the north to 1220 m in the south.
The Makran Mountains, consisting of several subparallel ridges up to 2357 m high, frame the Balochistan plateau from the south. From the north it is bordered by the border mountains of Chagai, where there are extinct volcanoes. Further to the northeast extends the Tobacacar ridge (up to 3149 m), at its western end there is the Khojak (Bolan) pass, through which a strategically important route from Quetta to Kandahar (Afghanistan) passes.
Natural disasters are common in the mountains of Pakistan. Thus, in the highlands, avalanches often occur, mudflows, rockfalls, and glacial pulsations (surges) occur. There are a number of seismically dangerous areas. In 1935, the city of Quetta was severely damaged by an earthquake.
Climate Pakistan is formed under the strong influence of monsoons. In most of the country it is tropical, in the north-west it is subtropical, dry and only wetter in the mountains. Average temperatures in January on the plains are 12.5–17.5° C, in July 30–35° C. In the highlands there are frosts down to –20° C and even in the summer months frosts occur. The average annual rainfall on the Balochistan plateau and the Indus Valley is less than 200 mm, in the Thar Desert - less than 100 mm, in Quetta - 250 mm, and in the mountains in the north-west of the country the most favorable conditions 500–1000 mm. In Sindh it does not exceed 125 mm, and the cultivation of agricultural crops there is possible only thanks to well-established irrigated agriculture using the waters of the Indus. In the foothill areas in the north of the country, the amount of precipitation increases to 300–500 mm, and in the mountains – up to 1500 mm. Maximum precipitation occurs during the summer monsoon period. In the plains of Pakistan, evaporation is 15–20 times higher than precipitation, so droughts are common.
Soils. On the Indus Plain, fertile alluvial soils in river valleys and semi-desert gray soils in the interfluves are widespread. In mountainous areas, chestnut, brown forest, subalpine and alpine mountain meadow and meadow-steppe soils are successively replaced from bottom to top. Sandy desert soils and salt marshes are common in the intermountain depressions of Balochistan, salt marshes are common in the south of Sindh, and barren sands are found within the Thar Desert.
Vegetable world. The Indus Plain is dominated by herbaceous-shrub semi-desert (Punjab) and desert (Sindh) vegetation. Excessive plowing and grazing, intensive water intake, and removal of woody vegetation have led to a decrease in river flow, landscape degradation, and an expansion of the area of anthropogenic deserts. The sparse plant cover is dominated by wormwood, capers, camel thorn, and solyanka. Grasses settle on fixed sands. Individual trees and groves, usually mangoes and other fruits, grow along roads, around villages and wells. Gallery forests of Euphrates poplar and tamarisk are preserved in places along river valleys. Thanks to artificial irrigation, large areas in the Indus basin and its tributaries have been turned into a system of oases where rice, cotton, wheat, millet and other crops are grown.
The highlands of Balochistan are dominated by desert vegetation with characteristic spiny cushion forms (acanthus, astragalus, etc.). Wormwood and ephedra are widespread. Higher in the mountains, sparse forests of olive, pistachio, and juniper appear.
In the mountains in the north and northeast of Pakistan, coniferous and deciduous forests have been preserved, occupying approx. 3% of the country's area. In the Salt Range, located between the Jhelum and Indus rivers and forming the southern edge of the Potwar Plateau, as well as in the foothills of the Himalayas and some other areas of the country, unique subtropical woodlands of evergreen xerophytic species grow. It is dominated by wild olives, acacias and dwarf palms. In the mountains at altitudes of 2000–2500 m above sea level. significant areas are occupied by tall forests of evergreen broad-leaved species, mainly oaks and chestnuts. Higher up they give way to majestic forests of Himalayan cedar ( Cedrus deodara), longleaf pine ( Pinus longifolia), fir and spruce. They often have a dense shrub layer of magnolia, laurel and rhododendron.
Mangrove forests grow in the Indus delta and on the coast of the Arabian Sea.
Animal world Pakistan is quite diverse. Large mammals in the mountains include wild sheep and goats, including the Siberian ibex, while the plains are inhabited by wild boars, antelopes, goitered gazelles, kulans and the Persian gazelle. There are many monkeys in the forests and groves. Predators in the mountains include leopard, snow leopard, brown and white-breasted bear, fox, hyena, and jackal. The world of birds is diverse, including birds of prey such as eagles, kites, vultures, as well as peacocks, parrots and many others. Snakes live almost everywhere, including many poisonous ones. Crocodiles live in the Indus Delta. Common invertebrates include scorpions, ticks, malarial mosquitoes and mosquitoes. The Arabian Sea is rich in fisheries resources. The most important commercial fish are herring, sea bass, and ravana (Indian salmon). They also catch sharks, stingrays, octopuses and shrimp. Giant sea turtles with a diameter of up to 1.5 m live off the coast.
POPULATION
Demography. The country's population in 2004 was estimated at 159.20 million people, while in 1901 there were 16.6 million inhabitants in the territory occupied by today's Pakistan. Consequently, in about 100 years there was an almost ninefold increase in population. The average population density in 1999 was 184 people per 1 sq. km, with maximum density in Punjab and minimum in Balochistan. The demographic growth rate in 2003 was 2.01% per year. Life expectancy is 61.3 years for men and 63.14 for women (2003). Pakistan tried to limit population growth through a family planning program. In the 1960s, the government launched a large-scale campaign to promote contraceptives, but, according to data from 1987–1994, only 12% of married couples use them. The birth rate in 2004 was 31.22 per 1000 people, and the mortality rate was 8.67 per 1000 Human.
Migration. Since ancient times, important population migrations have taken place in what is now Pakistan. In the 2nd millennium BC. Aryan tribes invaded Hindustan from the north-west, bringing their language and a new social structure. The same way in the 8th century. and later Muslim conquerors came here, and their religion and culture spread with them.
Several major population migrations have occurred in the modern era. From 1890 to 1920, the British colonial authorities resettled from 500 thousand to 1 million Punjabis from Eastern Punjab, now located within the Republic of India, to Western Punjab, i.e. to the territory of modern Pakistan, to develop lands on which a network of irrigation canals had been created shortly before. A massive resettlement of refugees also occurred immediately after the partition of the independent Indian possessions of Great Britain in 1947. Approximately 6.5 million people rushed from India to Pakistan, and 4.7 million in the opposite direction, i.e. the country added 1.8 million inhabitants over the year. This migration affected mainly Punjab: 3.6 million people left it and were replaced by 5.2 million. Most of the remaining refugees settled in the cities of Sindh, and less than 100 thousand - in Baluchistan and along the northwestern border.
During the 1970s and 1980s, many Pakistanis left their homeland in search of work, and in 1984 approximately 2 million people lived and worked abroad, mainly in the UK and the Middle East. However, in the late 1980s, the chances of finding work in the oil fields of the Persian Gulf decreased and mass repatriation began. In addition, in the 1980s, the civil war in Afghanistan led to the resettlement of up to 3 million people in refugee camps in Pakistan.
In Pakistan itself, there is a constant outflow of the rural population to the cities. In 1995, 35% of the country's population lived in cities.
see also British Empire.
Cities. The population of large cities includes a significant proportion of refugees from India (Muhajirs) and their descendants. In 1951, in each of the six largest cities, refugees made up more than 40% of the population.
The most important of the cities is Karachi with a population of approx. 9.2 million people (late 1990s). Urdu-speaking people from India predominate here. important role played by a layer of Gujarati refugees, although in significantly smaller numbers. Large communities of Sindhis, Punjabis, Pashtuns and Baluchis also formed. Karachi was the capital of the state until 1959, and is currently the administrative center of the Sindh province. The next largest city is Lahore, the capital of Punjab, with a population of more than 5 million people. Lahore, considered by many to be the center of the country's intellectual life, is home to the oldest Punjab University, founded in 1882. Faisalabad (formerly Lyallpur), which grew up during the colonial era in an area irrigated by a dense network of canals, has the third largest population (approx. . 2.0 million people), a center for trade in agricultural products and small industry. The fourth largest city is Rawalpindi in northern Punjab, with approx. 1 million inhabitants. Since 1959, for some time it was the capital of the country - until the new capital Islamabad was built 13 km northeast of it, where government institutions were transferred in the late 1960s. Other large Pakistani cities include Hyderabad (795 thousand inhabitants in 1992), Multan, Gujranwala and Peshawar.
Ethnic composition and languages. The official language of Pakistan and the language of international communication is Urdu. At the regional level, the most commonly used languages are Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashto (Pashto), Brahui and Baluchi. English is widely used in business, education and administrative activities.
Punjabi is spoken by approximately 63% of the total population. Pakistani Muslim Punjabis are ethnically identical to Hindu and Sikh Punjabis living in India. Sindhi is spoken approx. 12% Pakistanis. Pashto, the language of the Pashtuns living mainly in the North-West Frontier Province, is also widely spoken in neighboring Afghanistan. Balochistan is the homeland of Baluchi and Brahui speakers.
Two important languages for the country were brought to Pakistan by migrants. The Urdu-speaking Muhajirs came from Indian territory, mainly from the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh) after the 1947 partition, and settled predominantly in the cities, especially the Sindhi cities: Karachi, Hyderabad and Sukkur. Only 8% of Pakistanis consider Urdu their mother tongue, but its cultural function is exceptionally great. Urdu has been given the status of the state language, its speakers occupy important positions in the government apparatus and business. A smaller group of refugees, mainly from Bombay and the Kathiyawar Peninsula, speak Gujarati and are concentrated in Karachi.
Punjabi, Sindhi, Urdu and Gujarati belong to the Indo-Aryan language group, Pashto and Baluchi belong to the Iranian language group, and Brahui is a language of the Dravidian family, spoken mainly in the south of India.
Religion. The state religion is Islam, it is professed by over 97% of the population of Pakistan (about three quarters are Sunnis and one fifth are Shiites). In addition, there is a significant number of Ahmadis. They consider themselves devout Muslims, although the government of the country in 1974 refused to recognize members of this sect as adherents of Islam. Christians and Hindus each make up approximately 1.5% of the total population. Some Christians are Portuguese immigrants from Goa, and some are native residents. Hindus left Pakistan after 1947, although some continue to live in rural areas in Sindh. The country has a small community of Parsi-Zoroastrians who speak Gujarati.
STATE STRUCTURE
Historical background. After the predominantly Muslim areas of British India formed independent Pakistan, the state had to ensure the unity of a country that was ethnolinguistically and geographically diverse. Its eastern and western parts were separated by 1600 km. Between them was the territory of India. East Pakistan, inhabited by Bengalis, turned out to be ethnically homogeneous, in contrast to West Pakistan, which is inhabited by several large ethnic groups. However, political and economic power was concentrated in West Pakistan.
The Government of India Act, adopted by the British Parliament in 1935, was approved with the necessary amendments in 1947 as the provisional constitution of the new Dominion of Pakistan. The Constituent Assembly, whose members were elected indirectly (from the provincial legislatures), was tasked with drafting a permanent constitution and serving as a national parliament. The head of state became the governor-general (who was entrusted with the duties of the former viceroy), representing the Queen of England, and the head of government was the prime minister, accountable to parliament.
The leading political force in the country was the Muslim League, which received widespread popular support in its struggle for an independent Pakistan. League Leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah took over the post of Governor General, and his deputy Liaquat Ali Khan became the first Prime Minister of Pakistan.
In 1955, the Constituent Assembly decided to unite all the western provinces and princely states into a single province of West Pakistan. The following year, a new constitution was approved, which proclaimed the state of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan with a president at the head of the legislative branch and a prime minister at the head of the executive branch. The Constitution provided for "parity" between the two provinces of the country, whereby the more populous East Pakistan had as many MPs in Parliament as West Pakistan. In 1958, President Iskander Mirza suspended the constitution and imposed martial law. General Muhammad Ayub Khan was appointed head of the military administration, who took over as president in October 1958, sending Mirza into exile.
Ayub Khan carried out an administrative reform in the country, as a result of which a network of self-governing territorial units was created, the residents of which elected their representative to the primary bodies of self-government - “unions”, which performed advisory and administrative functions.
The 1962 Constitution provided for a presidential form of government. The state remained a federal entity consisting of two provinces: East Pakistan and West Pakistan. In 1969, after mass uprisings of the population directed against the ruling regime, a state of emergency was again introduced, and power was transferred to General Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan.
Yahya Khan abrogated the 1962 constitution and implemented the division of West Pakistan into four former provinces: Sindh, Punjab, North-West Frontier Province and Balochistan. In December 1970, the country held its first direct parliamentary elections, at which the principle of “one person, one vote” was adopted in order to pacify East Pakistan. In reality, this meant ensuring a majority in the new National Assembly for representatives of the leadership Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Awami League Party (Awami League). The Awami League received all but two of the parliamentary seats intended for East Pakistan, and the Pakistan People's Party (PPP), led by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto won in West Pakistan. Mujibur Rahman and Bhutto were unable to reach agreement on the future constitutional structure and fundamentals of governing the country. After Yahya Khan postponed the convening of the National Assembly, civil war broke out. East Pakistan, having received armed assistance from India, achieved independence and on December 16, 1971 was proclaimed the Republic of Bangladesh. A few days later, Yahya Khan was forced to resign and transfer power to Bhutto, who assumed the duties of President of Pakistan.
Under Bhutto, a temporary constitution was approved (1972), and in 1973 a permanent constitution was adopted, which provided for a parliamentary system of government. The Prime Minister was responsible to the highest legislative body of the country. Bhutto took over as prime minister. In March 1977, parliamentary elections were held, which the PPP party convincingly won. However, their results raised doubts, which led to mass unrest. In July, General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, the commander of the armed forces, dismissed Bhutto, declared a state of emergency, and in 1978 became president of Pakistan. The military council and the government helped him govern the country.
Zia put forward a program to bring the country's laws into line with the principles of Islam and, in this regard, approved the creation of the Federal Advisory Council (Majlis-i-Shura) in 1981. In 1985, Zia, who had begun a gradual transition to civilian rule, announced upcoming elections to the National Assembly and provincial legislatures, but exclusively on a non-partisan basis, and the formation of a cabinet. A year later, the president lifted the state of emergency and reinstated the 1973 constitution, which was amended to significantly expand presidential powers. In 1988, the government was dismissed and parliament was dissolved. In August, Zia-ul-Haq died in a plane crash. In the 1988 parliamentary elections, held on a party basis, the PPP won. Its leader Benazir Bhutto, daughter of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, headed the cabinet. In August 1990, President Ghulam Ishaq Khan removed Bhutto from her post, accusing the government of nepotism, corruption and abuse of power. Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi agreed to serve as temporary prime minister. In the general parliamentary elections in October 1990, the PPP suffered a serious defeat from the Islamic Democratic Alliance, led by Nawaz Sharif. B. Bhutto's revenge in October 1993 led to a new change of government, but in 1996 Bhutto's cabinet was again removed from power by the president. The subsequent elections in February 1997 were won by the Pakistan Muslim League, whose head Nawaz Sharif took over as prime minister.
see also Bangladesh.
President and Government of Pakistan. According to the 1973 constitution, the Islamic Republic of Pakistan is a federal state. Higher executive of the country - the president, who is elected for a five-year term by members of an electoral college consisting of deputies from both houses of parliament and provincial legislative assemblies. Executive functions are carried out by the government headed by the Prime Minister. Legislative power in the country belongs to a bicameral parliament. Most deputies of the National Assembly are elected by the population for 5 years, members of the Senate - for 6 years by provincial legislatures. The President appoints the Prime Minister and members of his cabinet with the approval of a majority of the members of the National Assembly. Previously, the head of state had the authority to dissolve the country's parliament and announce a new election campaign, but changes made to the text of the constitution in 1997 deprived him of this right.
Judicial system. The Supreme Court consists of a Chairman (Chief Justice of Pakistan) and other members. The next instance is formed by the Provincial High Courts located in Karachi, Quetta, Lahore and Peshawar, which supervise the activities of lower judicial bodies in their province: district courts, magistrates of various classes and magistrates' courts. During Zia's rule, the Federal Shariah Court was also created, which decides whether laws comply with the canons of Islamic law.
Administrative apparatus. Government agencies employ mostly professionals. Their upper stratum is formed by well-trained officials of the Pakistan Civil Service, which once included 1,000–1,500 people and was abolished in 1973 under Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto.
Political parties. There are parties of different orientations in the country, some of which are regional in nature. The Muslim League was a leading force in the 1940s, but later split into a number of factions. A coalition of factions remained dominant under Ayub Khan from 1962 to 1969. The Awami League Party (Awami League) was founded in 1949 and, under the leadership of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, won almost all of East Pakistan's parliamentary seats in the 1970 elections. The following year it became an independent ruling party Bangladesh. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto founded the Pakistan People's Party (PPP) in 1967, which advocated under the slogan of “Islamic socialism.” The PPP received 3/5 of West Pakistan's parliamentary seats in 1970 and was the country's most influential political organization in 1971–1977.
After the establishment of the military regime in 1977, the activities of the parties were limited. In the 1985 elections, the largest number of seats in the National Assembly went to the Pakistan Muslim League (Pogaro faction), and its leader Muhammad Khan Junejo was nominated for the post of prime minister. The main opposition association was the multi-party Movement for the Restoration of Democracy (MD; founded in 1981). It included the far-left People's National Party and the PPP, led by Benazir Bhutto. The VD demanded the renewal of the 1973 constitution and called for a boycott of the 1985 elections. After Zia removed Junejo in 1988, political activity in the country was restored. The judiciary confirmed that parties are allowed to take part in the elections. Former supporters of Zia-ul-Haq formed a new Islamic Democratic Alliance (IDA), led by Nawaz Sharif, who stood at the helm of its main force, the pro-government faction of the Pakistan Muslim League (PML). In the elections to the National Assembly in November 1988, the PPP received 93 of 205 parliamentary seats, the IDA - 55. Benazir Bhutto took the post of prime minister and remained in power until August 1990. In the parliamentary elections in October 1990, the Islamic Democratic Alliance led by Nawaz Sharif, who formed the government. After early elections to the National Assembly in 1993, the PPP won again, and its leader B. Bhutto headed the government. In the parliamentary elections in February 1997, the Pakistan Muslim League won the overwhelming majority of parliamentary seats (135) (the PPP had only 19 seats), and Nawaz Sharif became prime minister. However, in October 1999, as a result of a bloodless coup, his government was overthrown, and Nawaz Sharif himself and several ministers of his cabinet were placed under house arrest. As a result, the military came to power under the leadership of the Chief Administrator of Pakistan Pervez Musharraf.
Armed forces. Thanks to assistance from the United States and several other countries, Pakistani troops are well trained and equipped with modern weapons. In 1998, the ground armed forces numbered 450 thousand, sea forces 16 thousand and air forces 17.6 thousand people. The army has always had enormous influence in the country. Generals often moved to high positions in the civil administration, actively participated in the political events of the country, declared a state of emergency and established control over the government.
Foreign policy. In 1947, Pakistan was admitted to the UN and in the same year became a member of the British Commonwealth of Nations. In 1972, when Great Britain and other Commonwealth countries recognized Bangladesh, Pakistan withdrew from its membership and returned only in 1989. Pakistan's foreign policy was determined primarily by how relations developed with its neighbors - India and Afghanistan, which was reflected in the nature of diplomatic ties even with the superpowers . Since 1970, Pakistan has been a member of the Organization of the Islamic Conference, since 1979 - of the Non-Aligned Movement, since 1985 - of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.
For over 50 years, Pakistan has been in conflict with India over the issue of Kashmir. In 1947–1948, these states found themselves on the brink of war because of this. In 1972, with the mediation of the UN, a demarcation line was drawn in Kashmir. The southeastern areas of Kashmir remained under Indian administration, while the rest of the former princely state, known as Azad (Free) Kashmir, was controlled by Pakistan. Called the Northern Territories, it partially integrates the mountainous areas of northern Kashmir, including Gilgit, Hunza and Baltistan, but their residents do not participate in elections to the general Pakistani government. The dispute over the division of the Indus waters clouded India-Pakistan relations until it was successfully resolved in a 1960 treaty brokered by the World Bank.
In 1990, another outbreak of unrest occurred in Kashmir, which the Indian side accused Pakistan of instigating. The latter denies any involvement, recognizing the right to diplomatic support for Kashmiri Muslims and insisting on holding a referendum in the state of Jammu and Kashmir in accordance with UN resolutions. India demands that Pakistan withdraw troops from Kashmiri territory, and explains the refusal of the referendum, which Pakistan accuses it of, by the fact that the state legislature was in favor of its full integration with India. As a result, no actions were taken to resolve the conflict. In 1998, the Indian government, led by representatives of the Bharatiya Janata Party, and the Pakistani government, led by Nawaz Sharif, agreed to discuss all controversial issues, including Kashmir, at the diplomatic level.
In the 1950s, Pakistan signed a bilateral treaty with the United States and was a member of the regional military bloc SEATO from 1954–1972, and the Baghdad Pact (later CENTO) from 1955–1979. In 1962, after armed clashes occurred between India and China, Pakistan managed to reach an agreement on border issues and strengthen good neighborly contacts with the PRC.
Throughout the 1970s, Pakistan strengthened its ties with developing countries in the Middle East and other Third World regions. In 1974 he held a conference of leaders of Muslim states. Relations with Saudi Arabia and the Persian Gulf emirates have been established.
The authorities in Kabul never accepted the Durand Line, with which Great Britain in 1893 separated the Pashto-speaking areas that came under its control from Afghanistan, as the official state border. Kabul also sought, first in the 1950s and then in the 1970s, to encourage the separatist aspirations of the Pashtuns in the North-West Frontier Province by proposing the creation of the state of Pashtunistan. However, Afghanistan itself, as a weak neighbor, did not cause serious concern. The uprising of conservative Islamists in 1978 against the new, left-wing government in Afghanistan and the invasion of the Soviet army in this country in 1979 radically changed the situation. Over the course of several years, 3 million Afghan refugees arrived in Pakistan. The main thing was that Afghanistan, having turned out to be a potential ally of India, would pose a real threat to the security of Pakistan. Therefore, in the 1980s, Afghan rebels received reliable shelter and the opportunity to organize military camps on its territory. Arms for the Mujahideen came from the United States and Saudi Arabia through Pakistan. Military assistance was also provided to Pakistan itself. After Soviet troops withdrew from Afghanistan in 1988–1989, resistance fighters turned to internal civil war. Pakistan tried to help end it and achieve agreement between hostile factions.
ECONOMY
Historical background. The territories on the basis of which Pakistan was formed after the partition of British India in 1947 had a typically agricultural economy. Punjab, over 50% of which was within West Pakistan, was known as the breadbasket of the colony. During World War II, Punjab remained a major exporter of wheat and cotton, and local villages were distinguished by their material well-being compared to the rest of India. East Bengal, which became the province of East Pakistan, was the world's leading exporter of jute, used to make sacks and carpets. West Pakistan had an extensive system of irrigation canals and dams in Punjab and Sindh, and Karachi served as an important port. In the eastern part of the country, the port infrastructure was extremely weak, so international trade was carried out through Calcutta.
Pakistan's economy suffered seriously during the 1947 partition due to the outflow of refugees. Businessmen and entrepreneurs left the country, the loss of which could not be compensated by Muslim traders from India (especially those who arrived from Bombay and Calcutta). Only a limited number of immigrants had experience working in industry. Migration processes also had a negative impact on the agricultural sector. Many of the most skilled farmers, mainly Sikhs living in the Indus Valley, left Sindh and western Punjab.
In the first years of independence, the authorities were forced to deal mainly with the problems of resettling refugees and normalizing relations with India. Subsequently, the government was able to resort to a decision purely economic issues, with a special focus on industrialization. During the Korean War in 1950–1951, a sharp rise in world commodity prices allowed Pakistan to accumulate foreign exchange reserves, which were used to import industrial equipment. This course was maintained subsequently. Factory cotton production developed especially actively in West Pakistan and jute production in East Pakistan, so that the Ayub Khan regime in the mid-1960s became associated with the “22 families”, which took control of the country’s industry.
With the separation of the Eastern Province in 1971, Pakistan lost the most important market for its industrial products. Emphasis had to be placed on finding new export opportunities for Pakistani goods, primarily cotton and rice. After Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto came to power in 1971, large enterprises, life insurance companies, and later shipping companies and the trade in petroleum products were nationalized. Bhutto also carried out a scaled-down agrarian reform, according to which 400 thousand hectares of land were distributed among 67 thousand peasant farms by 1976.
General characteristics of the economy. Pakistan is an agrarian-industrial country in which the majority of the self-employed population is employed in agriculture. In 1991–1992, approximately 48% of the total labor force was concentrated in the agricultural sector, 20% in industry and 32% in the service sector. Unemployment and underemployment remain chronic problems. Many Pakistanis, from skilled professionals to ordinary workers, have to work abroad, especially in the Middle East. In 2002, Pakistan's GDP was $295.3 billion, or $2,000 per capita. 24% of GDP is created in agriculture, 25% in industry and construction, and 51% in trade and transport. In general, during the period of independence, undoubted economic progress was achieved: from 1947 to 1990, production increased its capacity by an average of 5% per year, but then the pace slowed down and in 1996–1997 was estimated at 2.8%. In 2001, the population at risk of poverty was 35%.
Agriculture. The country is heavily dependent on its agricultural sector to supply food and provide raw materials to industry. The main grain crop is wheat. The government buys it from farmers at a fixed price and subsidizes the sale of flour to the population. Government organizations are promoting the introduction of new high-yielding Mexican-Pakistani wheat varieties by distributing seeds to farmers at low prices, and also provide support in the purchase of pesticides to combat pests and plant diseases and mineral fertilizers.
Among commercial commercial crops, cotton is the most important. It is cultivated mainly on small farms, which supply raw materials to cotton ginning enterprises at government purchasing prices. These enterprises then sell the fiber to a government corporation, which sells it for export or to textile mills.
Leading food crops include rice, maize, chickpeas, sugarcane and millet. Rice is particularly important as an export commodity: the country's basmati variety produces an elongated, aromatic grain that is highly prized in the Middle East.
The country's agriculture relies on the most extensive irrigation network in the world. Flood filling channels, devoid of head structures that would guarantee water intake during low-water periods, already existed in the era of the early Indus Valley civilization. In the 19th and 20th centuries, under English rule, a system of permanently filled canals was created, which were fed by rivers all year round. Many peasants also build boreholes. In Pakistan, more than 80% of arable land is irrigated.
After the 1947 partition, some of the hydraulic structures that fed the canals in Pakistan ended up within India. The dispute over rights to river flow was resolved, with the participation of the World Bank as a mediator, by the signing of the Indus Water Treaty in 1960. According to this treaty, India received the right to control the flow of the Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, and Pakistan - over the flow of the Indus, Jhelum and Chenab. In the 1960s, a large earthen dam, Mangla, was built on the Jhelum River bordering India, and in 1976–1977, the Tarbela Dam on the Indus River.
Mining industry. Major gas deposits were discovered in Sui (Balochistan) in 1952, followed by discoveries in Punjab and Sindh. Oil was first discovered in Punjab's Attock district before the First World War. Currently, 7 fields are being exploited, but they satisfy less than 10% of Pakistan’s needs in liquid fuel. Other identified mineral resources include coal, chrome ores, marble, table salt, gypsum, limestone, uranium ore, phosphate rock, barite, sulfur, fluorite, precious and semi-precious stones. A large deposit of copper ore has been discovered in Balochistan.
Energy. Energy consumption in the country is low and in coal equivalent is 254 kg per capita, i.e. about the same as in India. More than half of the electricity is generated at hydroelectric power plants, but thermal power plants are also important; the role of nuclear power plants is limited.
Manufacturing industry. In Pakistan, the most developed textile industry (production of yarn and fabrics from domestic cotton) and the production of clothing for export.
With the help of the Soviet Union, a metallurgical plant near Karachi was built and put into operation in 1980. The capacity of the cement and sugar industries is being increased, and several oil refineries are operating. Natural gas serves as a raw material base for the chemical industry, in particular the production of fertilizers, and is used as fuel for thermal power plants.
Small-scale industries, such as sports goods (footballs and other balls, hockey sticks) and surgical instruments in Sialkot, play an important role in Pakistan's economy. There are numerous small cotton weaving enterprises operating in the informal sector of Faisalabad and other cities. In a number of Punjabi settlements, workshops for the manufacture of agricultural implements, pumps and diesel engines. Carpet weaving is developing rapidly.
Transport. The length of railways (including narrow gauge) is 8.8 thousand km. The main highway connecting a number of cities runs along the Indus. Export cargo is delivered to the ports of Karachi and Bin Qasim mainly by rail. The length of highways is more than 100 thousand km, including the Indus Valley Expressway connecting Peshawar and Karachi. In addition to road transport, carts pulled by buffalos, donkeys and camels are widely used for transportation.
Some freight and passenger transportation is carried out along rivers.
The main seaport of the country is Karachi, the second most important is Bin Qasim, opened in 1980. Marine shipping companies were nationalized in 1974. The domestic merchant fleet is small and does not fully provide foreign trade transportation.
The state-owned aviation company of Pakistan operates successfully, which, in addition to domestic connections, accounts for the majority of foreign passenger traffic. Since 1992, several private aviation companies have also been operating.
International trade. Trade links with foreign countries are important to the modern economy of Pakistan, especially for manufacturing and commercial agricultural production.
Pakistan has been experiencing difficulties for a long time due to a negative trade balance. In the 1970s, export earnings increased rapidly, but imports were even more dynamic, partly due to the surge in oil prices in 1973–1974. In 1996, exports reached $9.3 billion and imports $11.8 billion. The deficit was partly covered by remittances from Pakistanis who went to work in other countries (more than $1.5 billion) and foreign aid. Pakistan's external debt is estimated at approximately $30 billion. In 1997, the country's foreign exchange reserves amounted to $1.8 billion.
Thousands of Pakistani citizens different levels vocational training workers work abroad, primarily in the Gulf states, but also in the UK, Canada and the USA.
As in most Third World countries, foreign funds play a large role in Pakistan in the form of grants and credits. In 1996, external assistance amounted to almost $1 billion. The bulk of the resources were allocated by a consortium created by the World Bank. The main donors were the USA, Germany, Canada, Japan and the UK.
Money circulation and banking system. The Pakistani rupee is issued by the State Bank of Pakistan, located in Karachi. There are several large commercial banks operating in the country. Financial support for development projects falls within the competence of the Agricultural Development Bank, the Federal Cooperative and a number of other banks. Pakistani banks were nationalized in 1974, but some were subsequently returned to the private sector.
The state budget. The main sources of filling the current budget are import duties and excise taxes. The largest expenditures are foreseen for the army. In second place are the costs of servicing the public debt. The capital investment budget is financed primarily by foreign loans and borrowings and is focused primarily on the development of energy, water management, transport and communications.
SOCIETY
Social structure of the population. Pakistan has ethnolinguistic groups that are partly associated with specific geographic areas. In addition, there is division into tribes, castes and religious sects. Caste divisions are especially pronounced in Punjab and Sindh. In Pakistan, caste is a group of people with a certain social status and engaged in traditional activities. Marriages take place predominantly within castes, especially in rural areas.
Punjab. This province is dominated by three castes: Rajputs, Jats and Arains. Muslim Rajputs belong to the local clan elite, which was converted to Islam during the period of Mughal rule. From time immemorial they were warriors, rulers, landowners and plowmen. Even today, Rajputs form a significant stratum in the Pakistani army. The Jats and Arains, who are predominantly landowners, occupy a lower social position. Members of these castes serve in the military and have prestigious professions. The next places on the social ladder belong to the Avans, Gujjars, Loharis, Tarkhans and Biluchis. Of these, the first pair forms agricultural clans in the north-west of Punjab, while the Biluchi, originally from Baluchistan, are concentrated in the south-west. By tradition, members of these groups are engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry, including camel breeding. Among the Tarkhans and Loharis, artisans, carpet weavers and blacksmiths predominate. They are inferior in status to julaha (weavers), shoemakers, oil mill workers, porters, water carriers, boatmen and fishermen. Scavengers belong to the lowest caste. The landless agricultural population, employed in hard, unprestigious work, is also part of the lower castes.
Sind. Approximately 50% of the population of this province is represented by Sindhis and 30% by Muhajirs, belonging to the relatively prosperous group of migrants who arrived from India after the 1947 partition and their descendants. Until 1947, most businessmen and white-collar workers in Sindh came from the upper Indian castes, but then they were forced to leave for India. What remained were the Hindus, who occupied a low place in the system of caste hierarchy. Sindhis belong to different territorial, tribal, occupational and caste groups. The Pirs, the descendants of Muslim missionary saints, are numerous in the province, and sometimes the followers of some of them form separate social communities. Until the early 1950s, a clear minority of wealthy landowners, lawyers and members of the liberal professions stood in opposition to the bulk of the peasant poor in Sindh. Since then, a middle class has emerged, largely as a result of the spread of education. Sayyids, Soomros, Pathans, Mughals, Ansaris, Jatois, Bhuttos, Khuros, Mukhdums, Aghas - these are the most influential tribal and class-clan divisions in the province.
The Urdu-speaking Muhajirs, who fled the northern and central regions of India in 1947, live primarily in the Karachi district. Among them there is a large stratum of people who received a good education in colleges. They often pursue careers in art, journalism, and other media mass media, as university lecturers, in the military, industrial and shipping companies. The high standard of living of the Muhajirs created hostility among the Sindhis and some other ethnic groups, which led to inter-ethnic clashes in Karachi and other cities of Sindh. Muhajirs make up a significant portion of migrants who went to the countries of the Middle East, Europe and North America.
Gujarati-speaking refugees who arrived in 1947 from Western India - Bombay and Gujarat, together with their descendants, make up approx. 1% of Pakistan's population and is also concentrated mainly in Karachi. Some of them belong to the richest people in the country. Leading groups within this community include the Memons (Sunni businessmen), Bohras and followers of the Aga Khan - the Ismaili Khoja caste (Shiite businessmen), as well as the Parsi Zoroastrians.
Northwestern Frontier Province. Pashtuns constitute the main ethnolinguistic element of the population of this province. In the so-called The “tribal strip” is home to many Pashtun tribes, isolated territorially, speaking different dialects, having different customs and traditional clothing. The peoples of all these tribes are famous for their love of freedom. A large part of the border strip is included in the so-called. “centrally-administered tribal areas” that are only loosely subject to Pakistani law.
Pashtuns are characterized by hospitality. Their code of honor (Pashtunwali) recognizes blood feud, the need to provide shelter for exiles, long-term enmity and military prowess (every Pashtun is armed). Hill tribes in the past made their living by raiding lowland villages and controlling passes that provided easy access to South Asia. Pashtuns serve in the military and work in construction, industry and transport throughout Pakistan. They zealously adhere to Muslim customs. The province's border with Afghanistan has long been used to smuggle watches, televisions, silk and wool fabrics, transistors and calculators from Japan, Europe and the United States.
Baluchistan. Baloch people make up about a quarter of the province's total population. More than a dozen large tribes are known; their dialects are close to Farsi. In the east there are seven Baloch tribes (the largest are the Marris, Rinds and Bugti), in the west there are nine (the largest in number are the Rinds and Rakhshani). Cattle breeding remains the basis of the traditional nomadic economy, but some Baluchi have become cultivators, serving as soldiers, minor officials and police officers. Men have long been considered brave warriors.
Approximately a quarter of the province's population is Brahui. Their language is related to the Dravidian languages of South India. The Brahuis, like the Baluchis, are primarily engaged in pastoralism and agriculture. During the warm season, the Brahuis cultivate crops, and in winter they move north, where they sell livestock and handicrafts and are hired as seasonal workers. Many Brahuis settled in the irrigated agricultural areas of Sindh and Karachi.
The northern part of Balochistan is predominantly inhabited by Pashtuns (about a fifth of Balochistan's population). The main local tribes are the Kakars, Panis and Tarins.
Minorities also include the Jats, who live in the north-central part of the province, and the Lassis, concentrated in the south. The tribal population of the mountainous and coastal regions of Makran are characterized by Negroid characteristics, and some anthropologists believe that they are descendants of African slaves. The majority of Makran residents are illiterate and include many fishermen, donkey drivers, dairy farmers and unskilled laborers.
Lifestyle. Family plays a big role in the lives of Pakistanis. However, in Balochistan and parts of the North-West Frontier Province, tribal ties are also very important. The oldest of the men is consulted on every serious matter affecting family interests. His opinion is listened to with respect and, sometimes, even with fear. In marriage, priority is given to cousins, then second cousins, and finally girls of the same clan or tribe. Children are considered a gift from Allah. Sons are usually preferred to daughters because sons provide support to elderly parents, and the dowry of daughters when they marry often places such a heavy burden on the shoulders of the parents that they cannot pay off their debts for many years.
In all four provinces of Pakistan, men's and women's clothing consists of shalwars (harem pants) and kameez (shirts). Villagers everywhere wear a pugri (turban) on their heads. In the Punjabi village, shalwars are usually replaced by lungis, which are similar to sarongs. Educated men in cities prefer to dress in a European style, and women wear shalwars and kameezes. City women wear silk or nylon saris to work and on formal occasions. Ghararas (loose trousers pioneered by Mughal queens and princesses) and kameezes are worn during weddings and other special ceremonies.
Religious life. More than 75% of Muslims in Pakistan are Sunni and approx. 20% - Shiites. Less than 4% of the inhabitants, mainly Punjabis, belong to the Ahmadiyya sect and are popularly called Qadiyani. There is agreement between Sunnis and Shiites regarding the main fundamental tenets of Islam, but both fundamentally disagree with the Ahmadis. Conservative Sunnis and Shiites believe that Ahmadis do not have the right to consider themselves among the faithful, because they consider the founder of their sect, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (c. 1839–1908), to be a prophet, while, according to orthodox Islamists, Allah did not send other prophets to Earth after Muhammad.
Religious temples occupy an important place in the social life of Muslims. Each district has a mosque headed by an imam. Many mosques have madrassas - religious schools, where children are given traditional Islamic education free of charge. There are a number of dar-ul-ulums (Muslim universities) in Pakistan where students study for several years to become learned theologians - ulema.
Unions. Only a few trade union associations operate on a national scale. Among them, the textile workers' union stands out, with more than 80 thousand members. Strong trade unions have developed in such industries as ferrous metallurgy, carpet weaving, sugar and cement industries, oil refining, and the production of mineral fertilizers.
Most labor laws date back to the colonial period. At the same time, under Ayub Khan and Bhutto, a number of important legislative acts were adopted relating to the minimum wage, child employment, relations between workers and entrepreneurs, and pensions.
The status of women. Pakistani society is dominated by men. Girls during adolescence should prepare themselves to be able to manage housework, sew, cook and care for children younger age. Male relatives usually accompany girls when they leave the house; participation in joint parties and other meetings with young men, and especially dating, is strongly condemned. The marriage union is most often negotiated by the parents of the future couple. Love marriages take place only in big cities. Girls get married before the age of 18, and often much earlier.
After a girl is married off, the main event in her life is the birth of children. As children grow up, the status of the mother increases, especially if she has several sons. Families with marriageable daughters turn to her in search of grooms. Often mothers have a great influence on their sons. In old age, women switch to raising their grandchildren.
Social Security. Many public and religious organizations operate in this area, some of them receive financial and other assistance from government agencies. Since motherhood without formal marriage is sharply condemned, and women’s work outside the home is also not supported, emphasis has to be placed on the establishment of shelters for women with illegitimate children, the establishment of kindergartens and antenatal clinics. These organizations are also involved in activities related to orphanages and youth centers, caring for chronically ill and disabled people. An important area of activity is the fight against poverty.
CULTURE
Literature and art. Urdu, the national language of Pakistan, has a rich literary past. Mushaira (convention and competition of poets) is a unique feature of Urdu culture: poets recited their poems in front of an audience of thousands and received immediate response and appreciation. Canonical literature was initially dominated by romantic themes. Nowadays, poets and prose writers write about democracy, freedom of speech, equality of opportunity, poverty, hunger, life in slums, the powerless situation of women, the difficulty of getting married for city women over 20, the heavy burden of dowry for the bride’s parents.
From time immemorial, the highest form of Urdu poetry has been ghazals (“talks with beautiful women”). Their main motives were to glorify the beauty of their beloved, although poets often also indulged in philosophical reflection. Apart from the admiration of women, religious subjects and descriptions of historical events were the most popular in traditional Urdu literature. The Marsiyya (elegiac poems) of Mirza Salamat Ali Dabir and Mir Anis (Mir Babar Ali), for example, were dedicated to the bloody murder of the grandchildren of the Prophet Muhammad in Karbala. Zauq (Shaikh Muhammad Ibrahim) composed classic ghazals in Urdu, using images, metaphors, similes and vocabulary almost incomprehensible to the average person.
Mirza Asadullah Khan Ghalib (1797–1869) was the first great writer to use colloquial Urdu in poetry and prose genres. They followed his path at the end of the 19th century. novelists Said Ahmad Khan and Khali (Altaf Hussein). Muhammad Iqbal (1877–1938), recognized as the national poet of Pakistan, was a rebel in spirit, his work is full of patriotic motives and filled with pride for Islam. Collection Appeal to God and His response serves as perhaps the clearest evidence of Iqbal's literary prowess.
Faiz Ahmad Faiz, Ahmad Nadeem Qasmi and Eshan Danish became prominent figures in Urdu poetry in the 20th century. exponents of progressive ideas on the left spectrum of views. An example of their creative orientation is Faiz's book of poems Hands of the wind. In contrast, Habib Jaleb, Arif Mateen and Ahmad Faraz did not adhere to radical social views, but they were also characterized by avant-garde stylistic research. Among the prose writers, Ehsan Farooqi, Jamila Hashmi, Saida Sultana and Fazl Ahmad Karim Fazli stood out. Fazli's work Open up, tormented heart reflected new trends in Urdu prose.
Punjabi, Pashto, Sindhi and Baluchi literatures also have an extensive heritage. The most famous Punjabi poet is Waris Shah (18th century), author of the great poem Heer and Ranjha. Since the 1950s, the main representatives of the modernist movement in Punjabi literature have been Sharif Kunjahi, Ahmad Rahi, Sultan Mahmud Ashufta, Safdar Mir and Munir Niazi.
The central figure in Pashto literature remains Khushkal Khan Khattak (1613 - c. 1687). From the poets of the 20th century. Amir Hamza Shinwari stands out, and among the prose writers are Master Abdulkarim and Fazlhak Shaida.
Rich in tradition, Sindhi literature has produced its own classic, Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai (1689–1752). A prominent Sufi, the poet imbued his works with philosophical ideas, love of nature and mystical thoughts. Sachal Sarmast (1739–1826) followed in his footsteps.
Famous poets of the 18th–19th centuries who wrote in baluchi are Jam Durrak Dombki, Muhammad Khan Gishkori and Fazil Rind (his Night candle considered a classic collection of poetic works). Among the leading poets of the 20th century. includes Ata Shad, Zahoor Shah Sayyad, Murad Sahir, Malik Muhammad Tauqi and Momin Bazadar. The most significant contribution to Baluchi prose was made by Said Hashmi.
The Pakistan Arts Council strives to preserve the sustainability of regional styles in dance, music, sculpture and painting. The country's folklore troupes tour around the world. Ensembles performing spiritual compositions about Allah, Muhammad, his grandchildren and Muslim saints in the cavalli style (literally - singing in chorus) have been successfully giving concerts in the Middle East, Europe and North America since 1975.
Education. There are two education systems in Pakistan. The traditional system introduces students to Islamic subjects and provides knowledge of Urdu, Arabic and sometimes also Persian. The most conservative teaching remains in theological schools of madrassas operating at mosques. IN higher schools In this system, dar-ul-ulumah, students receive a solid theological training over a period of 5–15 years, intensively studying classical Muslim texts. As a result, the graduate becomes a respected scientist - an ulema. The two most famous dar-ul-ulums operate in Karachi and Lahore.
The mass education system was created by the British and was initially built on a European model. It includes kindergartens and schools. After graduating from school, the opportunity to enter a college or university opens up. The universities are located in Karachi, Islamabad, Lahore, Peshawar, Quetta, Multan, Bahawalpur, Jamshoro, Khairpur and Deraismailkhana. There are polytechnic institutes in Karachi, Lahore and Nawabshah, Taxila, and agricultural universities in Faisalabad and Tandojam. There are 14 medical colleges in the country, which graduate 4,000 doctors annually, many of whom go to work abroad. The Open University operates in Islamabad. The network of educational institutions also includes more than 400 colleges that teach natural sciences and humanities, and approx. 100 vocational schools. There are private universities, such as the University of Management in Lahore.
The country's adult literacy rate is low - 49% among men and 23% among women.
Museums and scientific institutions. A large archaeological museum is located in Mohenjodaro, south of Larkana (Sindh Province), where excavations of the ancient Indian civilization are being carried out. Another interesting archaeological museum was created in northern Pakistan in Taxila (west of Islamabad), where the ancient Gandhara culture flourished. The National Museum in Karachi has valuable archaeological and ethnographic collections that testify to the rich creative heritage of the peoples of Pakistan, and the National Museum in Lahore has magnificent historical exhibits.
Scientific research in the country is funded by the state and conducted in research centers and universities. Prominent in this regard are the Social Science Research Center of the Punjab University, the National Science Foundation, the Atomic Energy Commission and the Council of Scientific and Technical Research. Quaid-e Azam University in Islamabad specializes in research in the field of social, biological and several other sciences. Scientific research is financed in the form of grants by the University Research Fund.
The Pakistan Institute of Economic Development, which publishes English language Pakistan Development Review magazine. The Agricultural Research Center and the Federal Bureau of Statistics are also renowned.
Mass media.
Seal. More than 2,700 newspapers and other periodicals are published in the country. Of these, approx. 120 are published in English and approx. 2500 - in Urdu. The rest are published primarily in the languages of the peoples of Pakistan, as well as in Arabic and Persian. Major daily newspapers include: Urdu - Jang, Nawa-e Waqt and Hurriet, Sindhi - Hilal-e Pakistan and Aftab, Gujarati - Millat and Watan, English - Pakistan Times, Daily News, Nation and Khyber Mail, in English and Gujarati - Doon. The Business Recorder serves as a daily source of business and other economic information in English, and the Friday Times is considered a leading political weekly. Among the monthly publications, the Herald has gained the greatest authority, and Nukush (Impressions) is considered the best literary magazine in Urdu. The weekly “Akhbar-i Khavatin” (“Newspaper for Women”) is designed for a female readership. There are two news agencies in the country: Associated Press of Pakistan (APP) and Pakistan Press International (PPI).
Broadcasting, television and cinema. There are radio stations in all major cities of the country. Many of them have television centers and broadcast repeaters. Comedies, musical and dramatic performances, films, folk dances, humorous sketches and cricket competitions are among the most popular programs. Many American television programs are broadcast. The satellite communication system is being developed.
Pakistanis, especially those from the lower social strata in small towns and villages, love to visit cinemas. In Urdu, Punjabi, Pashto and Sindhi films, the plot usually revolves around a love triangle. They feature a lot of music and dancing, and the nobility of the main characters is usually presented in an emphatically sublime style. The educated stratum prefers to watch American and European films.
Sport. The most popular sport in the country is cricket, introduced from England. The Pakistan national team, one of the strongest in the world, is competing for leadership in international competitions with rivals from Great Britain, Australia, India and the West Indies. A special national committee has been created to guide and monitor the development of cricket. Other common sports are football, field hockey, big and table tennis, boxing, wrestling, weightlifting, swimming, golf, polo, squash and baseball.
Holidays. The main holidays in the country are Pakistan Day (March 23, when the Lahore Resolution was adopted in 1940, which contained the demand for the creation of an independent Pakistan); Iqbal Day (April 21 is the birthday of national poet Muhammad Iqbal); Eid-ul-Fitr (the holiday of breaking the fast at the end of fasting in the month of Ramadan); Eid-i Milad (birthday of the Prophet Mohammed); Eid ul-Azkha (holiday on the occasion of the pilgrimage to Mecca); Independence Day (August 14); Birthday of Pakistan's founder Jinnah (December 25); New Year(1st of January). Some Hindu festivals are also celebrated, such as Holi (Festival of Colors) or Deepavali (Festival of Lights).
STORY
Pakistan is a young state that emerged in 1947, but Muslims have lived on its territory for more than a thousand years. They first appeared in South Asia in the 8th century. as conquerors and remained an influential political force until the 19th century.
Early Muslim states in India. In 710–716, troops under the command of the prominent Umayyad military leader Muhammad ibn Qasim captured Sindh and southern Punjab. Those who did not convert to Islam were forced by the new Arab authorities to pay a special poll tax for those of other faiths - jizia, but they were left with freedom in the practice of religious rites and in the sphere of cultural life. Hindus were not required to perform compulsory military service, but if they entered it, they were exempted from the jizya and received the required salary and reward.
Between 1000–1027, Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni undertook 17 campaigns in India, penetrating through the Indus Valley into the Gangetic Plain. His empire extended from Samarkand and Isfahan to Lahore, but its western regions were lost to the heirs to the throne in the 11th century. Ghaznavid Punjab, which included the northwestern border regions and Sindh, can be considered the prototype of Pakistan. Numerous Muslim communities that settled in the Indus basin no longer considered these lands as conquered territory - it became their homeland.
The rule of the Ghaznavids turned out to be fragile, and in 1185 the Indus Valley became part of the Ghurid state. This happened under Sultan Muiz-ud-din Muhammad, who managed to extend Muslim rule over the entire North-West India, as well as Bengal and Bihar. The successors of Muiz-ud-din Muhammad, who was killed in 1206 in Punjab, managed to maintain control over the lands conquered in India. The period after his death until the accession of Babur, who founded the Mughal dynasty in 1526, is known as the time of the Delhi Sultanate. Over the course of more than 300 years, there were 40 sultans belonging to five Muslim dynasties: Gulyamov (1206–1290), Khilji (1290–1320), Tughlakids (1320–1414), Saids (1414–1451) and Lodi (1451–1526) . Administrative posts in the Delhi state were occupied predominantly by Muslims, but Hindus were also involved in public service. To resolve civil cases, Hindus had their own community courts (panchayats).
Islam strengthened its influence in India during this era. Conversion to it was generally done without violence, and Sufis, partly specially trained, took up the preaching of Muslim dogmas in order to bring the light of the new faith to different areas of the subcontinent. Contacts between Hindus and Muslims led to the formation of the Urdu language, which arose on the basis of one of the dialects of Northern India, enriched by Persian vocabulary. Hindi was formed on the same dialect basis, but was influenced by Sanskrit. In the 17th–18th centuries. a modern Urdu literary standard emerged, which used Persian-Arabic graphics and adopted the creative traditions of Persian and Arabic writers and the ideas of Islam; Urdu has emerged as a powerful engine of Muslim culture in South Asia.
Mughal Empire. This state is known for its achievements in the field of culture, education and art. Created by Babur in 1526, it was consolidated by his grandson Akbar (c. 1556–1605). Akbar pursued a policy of conciliation with the Hindus, and efficient administration forms an important feature of the reign of this emperor. In 1579 the poll tax – jizia – was abolished. Hindu temples were taken under state protection. In 1580, Akbar announced the creation of a new religion - Din-i-illahi (Divine Religion), which was based on the rejection of idolatry and polytheism. The goal was to ensure the loyalty of both Hindus and Muslims, especially government employees. Under Akbar, under the leadership of the Minister of Finance, the Hindu Todar Mal, a system of land taxation was introduced, which subsequently, at the end of the 18th century, was relied upon by the English colonial authorities when developing their policies.
Akbar's successor, Emperor Jahangir (c. 1605–1627), also focused on creating a “secularized” state. Shah Jahan (c. 1628–1658) transformed the empire into a Muslim power. A zealot of faith, Aurangzeb (c. 1658–1707) succeeded his father Shah Jahan. Already in the first years of his reign, Aurangzeb issued several decrees that restored many Islamic customs. With age, the ruler's religious fanaticism intensified. Hindu temples, erected without imperial permission, were destroyed, and the construction of new ones was not allowed. In April 1679, the Hindus were again subject to jizia.
The oppression caused strong discontent among Hindus and a series of unrest, including the revolt of the Satnami sect in the city of Narnaul in 1672, the rebellion of the Sikh guru Tegh Bahadur in 1675, the Rajput uprising in 1679, and the civil war with the Marathas in 1680–1707. The wars waged by Aurangzeb led to the severance of the good neighborly political and cultural ties that had arisen between Muslims and Hindus under Akbar. In the 18th century Hindu, Muslim and Sikh communities began to fight for leadership, but were unable to resist the British, who filled the political vacuum left by the decline of the Mughal Empire.
British India and the creation of Pakistan. In the 18th–19th centuries. England extended its control over the whole of India, including the territories that later became part of Pakistan. Bengal was conquered in 1757, Sindh in 1843 and Punjab in 1849. In 1857, an anti-British sepoy uprising broke out, insisting on the transfer of power to the nominal ruler of India, Bahadur Shah II. The uprising was suppressed, Bahadur Shah II was convicted and sent to Rangoon for lifelong exile, and the Mughal dynasty ceased to exist.
After 1857, the undisputed leader of the Islamic community in India was Said Ahmad Khan (1817–1898), who insisted on peaceful relations with Britain and the adoption of the Western education system. In 1875, Ahmad Khan founded a Muslim university in Aligarh. In 1883, he managed to convince the British colonial authorities to organize separate electoral curiae for Hindus and Muslims. In 1887, Syed Ahmad Khan insisted that adherents of Islam separate themselves from the Indian National Congress party, founded in 1885. The partition of Bengal in 1905 prompted Ahmad Khan's followers to demand a separate quota for Muslims in future constitutional issues. Rejecting the political position of their late leader, his adherents formed the All-India Muslim League in December 1906 in Dhaka, which later began the struggle for the formation of Pakistan. The Morley-Minto Reform Act, adopted in 1909 by the English Parliament, provided for special representation of Muslims and other minorities in elected bodies. Later, at the insistence of Muslims, this principle was taken into account in the Montagu-Chelmsford Reform Act (1919) and in the Government of India Act (1935).
In the 1920s, Hindus and Muslims presented a united front under the ideological leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, who in 1921, in protest of Britain's hostile position towards the Turkish Caliphate, proclaimed a campaign of civil disobedience. Political authority increased in the 1920s and 1930s Muhammad Ali Jinnah(1876–1948) and the poet-thinker Muhammad Iqbal (1877–1938), who prepared the Islamic public to accept the idea of the partition of India. Addressing the Muslim League session in Allahabad on December 29, 1930, Iqbal spoke in favor of a separate Islamic state in the subcontinent, but did not address the question of the future of Bengal. In Lahore, on March 23, 1940, the Muslim League under the leadership of Jinnah declared as its goal the formation of the state of Pakistan (the proposed name of the country was a neologism). The Lahore Resolution of 1940 declared: “Areas in which Muslims form a numerical majority, such as North-West and East India, should be united to constitute independent states, and their constituent units should have autonomy and sovereignty.” In 1946, a special government mission sent from Great Britain developed a plan to preserve the integrity of India, which provided for regional autonomy for the Muslim population. It was proposed to identify two geographical zones with a Muslim majority: one of them was to cover north-western Baluchistan, North-West Frontier Province, Punjab and Sindh, the other - north-eastern Assam and Bengal. The rest of India was treated as a single entity with a Hindu majority. It was recommended that the central government be given only minimal rights. However, this plan, adopted by the League, was rejected by the Indian National Congress, after which the partition of British India became inevitable. On August 14, 1947, two new independent states appeared on the political map of the world - India and Pakistan.
see also British Empire.
Pakistan during the period of independence before the separation of Bangladesh: 1947–1971. After independence, Pakistan faced difficulties in forming stable political institutions. From 1947 to 1958, the country had a parliamentary system in accordance with the Government of India Act (1935) and the Declaration of Independence (1947), but without direct elections to the highest legislative body. In 1958, a military regime was established headed by General (from 1959 - Field Marshal) Ayub Khan. In February 1960, presidential elections were held, in which Ayub Khan won. A commission was created to develop the country's constitution, which was adopted in 1962. Martial law was lifted only in June 1962. In 1965, Ayub Khan was re-elected president of Pakistan through constitutional means. In 1969, martial law was reintroduced in the country, and General Yahya Khan came to power (resigned in 1971).
The partition of British India in 1947 gave rise to violent clashes between Hindus and Muslims and huge flows of refugees: approx. 6.5 million Muslims crossed from India to Pakistan and approx. 4.7 million Hindus and Sikhs moved in the opposite direction. Up to 500 thousand people died due to religious clashes and subsequent migrations.
The Kashmir conflict has become an obstacle to normalization of the situation in the subcontinent. Until 1947, there were 584 principalities in British India, which had to decide the issue of joining Muslim Pakistan or Hindu India. In October 1947, the Maharaja of Kashmir, a Hindu by religion, made a choice in favor of India. Armed clashes between the Indian and Pakistani armed forces that began in 1947 continued until the end of 1948, until a ceasefire line was established with the help of the UN. Proposals to hold a referendum among the population of Kashmir on the future of the princely state were not supported by India. In 1965, Pakistani troops resumed hostilities in Kashmir, which were stopped. Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistani President Ayub Khan met in Tashkent in January 1966 and agreed to withdraw their troops to the ceasefire line. see also Kashmir
After much debate, the Constituent Assembly in 1949, under the influence of Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan, approved a resolution stating that “Muslims should be guided in their personal and public lives by the teachings and requirements of Islam as laid down in the Holy Quran and Sunnah.” On February 29, 1956, the Constituent Assembly adopted a constitution, according to which the Federal Islamic Republic of Pakistan was proclaimed on March 23, 1956. The constitution stated that the president of the country must be a Muslim. This article was also preserved in the 1962 constitution, which was in force under Ayub Khan. In this regard, the Advisory Council of Islamic Ideology was formed, and the Institute for the Study of Islam was opened.
The debate over electoral curiae was of serious importance in view of the fact that ca. 20% of the population of East Pakistan were Hindus. In 1950–1952 laws were issued regarding elections to provincial legislatures. It was decided that in the presence of a clear Muslim majority, it would be advisable to identify special electoral groups: Christians and “general” in a number of areas of West Pakistan; and Christians, Buddhists, Scheduled Castes ("untouchables") and "general" in East Pakistan. Each of these groups sent its representatives to the legislative bodies using its own electoral lists. As a result, in the elections in East Pakistan in March 1954, among the 309 deputies there were 72 non-Muslims. Under Ayub Khan (1958–1969), indirect parliamentary elections were held through local governments (the so-called “foundations of democracy” system). At the lower level, there was no separate voting, which practically led to the fact that candidates from non-Muslim communities almost never got into these bodies.
In the year of the country's independence, West Pakistan included 4 provinces and 10 princely states. The Bengalis insisted that East Pakistan had greater rights to autonomy than the territorial administrative units of West Pakistan and, due to its superior population, should have priority in resolving state issues. To meet such demands, all 14 administrative entities that were part of it were united into one province in West Pakistan. This event took place in October 1955, then an agreement was reached on equal representation of both parts of the country in the national parliament.
East Pakistan had good reasons to express its discontent. Although more than half of the country's total population was concentrated in the province, government funds were directed primarily to West Pakistan, which received the bulk of funds received in aid from abroad. A disproportionate number of East Pakistanis were employed in the government (15%) as well as in the armed forces (17%). The central government clearly patronized the industrialists of West Pakistan in foreign exchange transactions, in issuing import licenses, loans and grants, and in providing permits for the construction of enterprises in the latest industries. Industrial development after 1953 took place largely against the backdrop of economic and military support from the United States, which was focused on protecting West Pakistan from a possible Soviet threat.
In February 1966, Awami League leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman put forward a six-point program that included: 1) the responsibility of the federal government to a parliament formed on the basis of free and fair elections, 2) limiting the functions of the center to matters of defense and foreign affairs, 3) the introduction of separate currencies (or independent financial accounts) for each of the two provinces while controlling the interprovincial movement of capital, 4) transferring the collection of all types of taxes from the center to the provinces, which support the federal government with their contributions, 5) providing both parts of the country with the opportunity to independently conclude foreign trade agreements and in connection with this, have their own foreign currency accounts and 6) create their own irregular army in West and East Pakistan.
In East Pakistan, agitation was launched in support of this program, and Mujibur, along with 34 like-minded people, was arrested in 1968 on charges of developing a plan to organize an uprising with the help of India. At the beginning of 1969, a nationwide protest campaign began against the regime of President Ayub Khan. In February, charges against Mujibur and his associates were dropped. Ayub Khan convened a Round Table to meet with opposition leaders, at which Mujibur proposed to draw up a new constitution based on the six points listed. Ayub Khan, who resigned on March 25, was replaced by General Yahya Khan, who declared a state of emergency in the country.
Yahya Khan restored the four former provinces in West Pakistan and scheduled the first direct general elections to the national parliament for December 7, 1970. In it, the deputies from East Pakistan were virtually guaranteed a majority thanks to the adopted principle of “one voter, one vote.” The Awami League won 160 of the 162 seats meant for East Pakistan. This landslide victory was achieved as a result of a long campaign for the implementation of Mujibur's program and strong criticism of the central government for insufficient assistance to the victims of the devastating hurricane that hit East Pakistan on November 7, 1970. The Pakistan People's Party (PPP), led by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, received 81 of 138 seats from West Pakistan.
Mujibur announced that the new constitution should be based on his program. In response, Bhutto informed on February 17, 1971 that the PPP would boycott the work of the National Assembly if it did not get the opportunity to discuss constitutional reform. As a result, Yahya Khan postponed the opening of the parliamentary session scheduled for March 3. Awami League said this indicated collusion between the President and the PPP leader.
Mujibur called a general strike in East Pakistan on March 2, and the population took to the streets of Dhaka and other cities in the province. Mujibur called for refraining from paying taxes until power is transferred to the representatives of the people. Yahya Khan expressed his desire to convene a new Round Table for negotiations, but Mujibur rejected this proposal. On March 15, a parallel Awami League government was established in East Pakistan. East Bengal military formations entered into an alliance with Mujibur. On 16 March, Yahya Khan held a meeting in Dhaka on constitutional issues with Mujibur and Bhutto, but failed in his attempt to reach a compromise. On the night of March 25-26, Yahya Khan ordered the army to begin military action in East Pakistan, banned the Awami League and arrested its leader Mujibur.
A full-scale war broke out between the forces of the central government and the rebel forces of the Mukti Bahini, who entered into the struggle to create an independent state of Bangladesh in the place of East Pakistan. Millions of refugees flocked to India. By the summer of 1971, the Pakistani army managed to establish control over the territory of East Pakistan. But India supported the armed rebels, and in November took direct part in the hostilities. The Third India-Pakistan War strained international relations as the USSR supported India's position and the USA and China supported Pakistan's position. On December 16, 1971, Indian troops entered Dhaka, and Pakistani units were forced to capitulate. Bangladesh was declared an independent state. The first president of the new country was Mujibur Rahman.
Pakistan after 1971. Yahya Khan resigned on December 20, 1971. He became the President of Pakistan. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto. One of his first steps was to agree with Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in Shimla that the Indian army would leave Pakistani territory. Trade and transport links between both countries were also restored. Pakistan's relations with the United States have improved, and Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Libya and Iran have also begun to provide assistance.
Bhutto abolished martial law, and in April 1973 a draft of a new constitution was approved, restoring the parliamentary system of government. The powers of the provinces were expanded. Electoral curiae for religious minorities were revived while maintaining the primacy of Islam. Adhering to the idea of “Islamic socialism,” Bhutto carried out the nationalization of all private banks, educational institutions, insurance companies and heavy industrial enterprises. Agrarian reform led to the transfer of a significant share of cultivated areas to landless tenants. The salaries of those employed in industry, military personnel and officials were increased. Large funds were allocated to improve living conditions in rural areas. All these events, against the backdrop of a fourfold increase in prices for imported oil, were accompanied by a doubling in 1972–1976 of prices for consumer goods in the domestic market, which reduced Bhutto’s popularity in the cities. Bhutto had difficulty interacting with Wali Khan's People's National Party (PNP) and the Jamiat-i Ulama-i Islam Party, which in 1972 formed cabinets in the North-West Frontier Province and Balochistan, respectively. In February 1973, Bhutto dismissed these governments, banned the PNP and arrested its leaders.
In March 1977, elections to parliament and provincial legislative assemblies were held. The opposition refused to accept the official results of the vote and organized a protest movement, during which more than 270 people died. On July 5, 1977, the army removed Bhutto, and martial law was established in the country. General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq took over the post of Chief Military Administrator, and in 1978 became President of Pakistan. Bhutto was accused of planning the murder of political enemies and was put on trial, which sentenced him to death in 1979.
Zia followed the line of Islamization and sought to bring the country's criminal legislation into line with the norms of traditional Muslim law. Some legal procedures prescribed by Islam in the areas of taxation and banking were restored. In 1979, Zia participated in the meeting of heads of state of the Non-Aligned Movement held in Havana. But friendly relations remained between Pakistan and the United States, which became even closer after the armed intervention of the USSR in the civil war in Afghanistan.
Zia began to gradually create new political structures. In December 1981, the creation of the Federal Advisory Council was announced. On a non-partisan basis, elections to local government bodies were held in the fall of 1983. They were boycotted by opposition forces and there was serious unrest in Sindh. In December 1984, Zia organized a popular referendum that approved the Islamization strategy. In February 1985, elections to parliament and provincial legislative assemblies were held, also on a non-partisan basis, after which Zia decided to form a civilian government. Muhammad Khan Junejo, leader of the Pakistan Muslim League (Pagaro faction), which turned out to be the largest parliamentary group in the National Assembly, was appointed prime minister. In December 1985, Zia abolished martial law and reinstated the 1973 constitution with amendments that expanded the powers of the president, giving him the right to dissolve the government and legislative bodies of the country and provinces. The law on parties, adopted a few months later, allowed them to operate legally, subject to compliance with official regulations. Opposition organizations have stepped up their attacks on the Zia regime, demanding regular elections on time and the restoration of constitutional norms. The most authoritative leader was Benazir Bhutto, who headed the Pakistan People's Party (PPP).
In May 1988, Zia achieved his biggest foreign policy success when the Soviet Union began withdrawing troops from Afghanistan. The security of Pakistan's northeastern borders became noticeably stronger with the withdrawal of the Soviet army from Afghanistan completed in February 1989 and the weakening of the positions of the left.
At the end of May, Zia dismissed Junejo's government and dissolved the National Assembly due to disagreements over control of the armed forces. New elections were scheduled for November 1989.
On August 17, 1988, Zia was the victim of a plane crash. Senate Chairman Ghulam Ishaq Khan, who assumed the duties of president, announced the upcoming elections in November. In October, the Supreme Court ruled that candidates could run for political parties. The PPP won the elections, which received a relative majority in parliament, and on December 1, 1988, its leader Benazir Bhutto took the post of prime minister. The new cabinet developed a program of social and political reforms, but unexpectedly in August 1990, Ishaq Khan dismissed Bhutto. Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi, a former ally of Bhutto, was appointed prime minister.
In the parliamentary elections in October 1990, the Bhutto-led PPP was defeated by the Islamic Democratic Alliance, the leading force of which, the Pakistan Muslim League, was in alliance with the Jamaat-i Islami Party. League leader Muhammad Nawaz Sharif was nominated as Prime Minister. In 1992, Jamaat-i Islami left the alliance, soon differences emerged between Ishaq Khan and Sharif, as a result of which the latter was dismissed on April 18, 1993. However, the Supreme Court of Pakistan declared the president's decree unconstitutional, and Sharif returned to his post on May 26. Nevertheless, the contradictions between the two leaders were not eliminated, since Sharif advocated removing from the text of the Constitution the provisions that gave the president the right to dissolve the highest bodies of state power. The military entered into the dispute and on July 17, 1993, removed both Sharif and Ishaq Khan. The interim government was headed by the former vice-president of the World Bank Moin Qureshi, the functions of the head of state were assigned to the chairman of the Senate.
The PPP won the new elections, and in October 1993 Bhutto returned to the position of prime minister. In November, parliament elected one of the leading PPP functionaries, Sardar Farooq Ahmed Leghari, as president. Accusing the government of incompetence and corruption, Leghari dismissed it and on November 5 dissolved parliament and provincial legislatures. The oldest politician, Meraj Khalid, became the prime minister of the new government.
In February 1997, elections brought a landslide victory to the Pakistan Muslim League (PML), which won over 2/3 of the parliamentary seats in the National Assembly, and gave Sharif the opportunity to form a cabinet of ministers. Sharif managed to legally deprive the president of the right to remove the government and terminate the activities of legislative bodies. In December 1997 Legari resigned. That same month, retired judge Rafik Tarar was elected as the new president.
In May 1998, Pakistan conducted atomic tests in response to similar tests in India carried out a month earlier. The United States applied sanctions against both countries, which particularly affected Pakistan with its weak economy. The Prime Minister faced not only economic difficulties, but also opposition to his proposed constitutional changes, according to which the tenets of Islam should play a dominant role in the interpretation of the laws of the Constitution. Since the authorities had the opportunity to interpret which of their decrees were based on Islamic law, the federal executive bodies were effectively removed from state control. Opponents of the government pointed out that this created a threat of the revival of a dictatorial regime in Pakistan.
The military's coming to power as a result of a bloodless coup in October 1999 was prepared by popular dissatisfaction with the government of Nawaz Sharif, accused of corruption, abuse of power and nepotism (in April 2000, a Pakistani court sentenced Sharif to life imprisonment). The coup organizer, General Pervez Musharraf, headed the military administration of Pakistan. The people had high hopes due to the military coming to power. However, the reforms proclaimed by Musharraf and the desire to end corruption were not crowned with success. The people are disappointed. Musharraf himself is inclined to transfer power to civilian officials if a worthy person is found who can effectively govern the country. Meanwhile, Islamists are becoming more active, led by Jamaat-e Islami leader Qazi Hussain Ahmad, who is attacking the Musharraf regime and calling for a “revolution.”
LITERATURE
Pakistani Society: Economic Development and Social Structure. M., 1987
. Directory. M., 1991
Belokrinitsky V.Ya. Capitalism in Pakistan: History of Socio-Economic Development(mid 19th – 80s of the 20th century.).
M., 1998
Encyclopedia Around the World. 2008 .
PAKISTAN
ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF PAKISTAN
State in South Asia. It borders on Afghanistan in the north and northeast, India in the northeast, east and southeast, and Iran in the west. In the south it is washed by the Arabian Sea. Pakistan disputes with India the territory of Jammu and Kashmir, divided between the two states. The country's area is 796,095 km2. The territory of Pakistan is divided into two geographical regions by the Indus River. To the east of the river lies the Indus Valley, and to the west lies the Baluchistan Highlands. One can also distinguish the narrow coastal plain, the Kharan Basin, which lies to the west of the highlands, and the Thar Desert on the southeastern border with India. The Indus Valley ranges from 80 to 320 km in width and is divided into two plains: Punjab and Sindh. The tributaries of the Indus in this part of the country are the Sutlej, Ravi, Chenab and Jhelum. The Balochistan highlands include several mountain ranges: Tobacacar, Siagan, Sulaiman, Kirthar. The highest point of the highland is located in the Hindu Kush mountains - Mount Tirikmir (7690 m). The highest point of Pakistan is located in the Karakoram Mountains - Mount K2 (Godwin-Austen) (8611 m). This is the second peak in the world after Everest.
The country's population (estimated for 1998) is about 135,135,200 people, with an average population density of about 170 people per km2. Ethnic groups: Punjabi - 66%, Sindhi - 13%, Pathan - 8.5%, Urdu - 7.6%, Baluchi - 2.5%, other groups. Language: Urdu (state), Punjabi, Pashto, Sindhi, Saraiki, Baloh, English (government officials, military, intelligentsia). Religion: Muslims - 97% (about four fifths are Sunnis, about one fifth are Shiites), Hindus, Christians, Sikhs, Parsis, Buddhists. The capital is Islamabad. Largest cities: Karachi (9,863,000 people), Lahore (5,085,000 people), Faisalabad (1,875,000 people), Peshawar (1,676,000 people), Rawalpindi (1,290,000 people), Multan (1,257,000 people), Hyderabad (1,107,000 people), Islamabad (559,000 people) . The government system is a parliamentary republic. The head of state is President Sardar Farou and Ahmed Leghari (since 1993). The head of government is Prime Minister M.N. Sharif (in office since 1997). The currency is the Pakistani rupee. Average life expectancy (as of 1998): 61 years for men, 63 years for women. The birth rate (per 1000 people) is 34.4. The mortality rate (per 1000 people) is 10.7.
In the Sh-P millennia BC. modern Pakistan was the center of one of the world's oldest civilizations - the Harappan. Around 1500 BC Aryan tribes came to the country, creating a Hindu civilization that lasted about 2000 years. However, Pakistan began to gradually separate from India under the influence first of the Persian conquerors in the 6th century BC, and later of Alexander the Great and the Sassanids. During the first Arab conquest in 715 AD. Islam came to the country. During the Mughal Empire (1526-1857), Muslim rulers held power over much of India. In 1906, the Muslim League was formed on the territory of modern Pakistan, designed to protect the interests of the Muslim minority of India. Since 1940, League leaders had called for the creation of an independent Muslim state. After the departure of the British authorities on August 14, 1947, the Muslim part of India received the right of self-government with dominion status within the Commonwealth. Until 1971, Pakistan was divided into two parts: West Pakistan and East Pakistan. On March 25, 1971, East Pakistan declared independence and became the Republic of Bangladesh. Since 1947, India and Pakistan have had a dispute over the territory of Jammu and Kashmir, which escalated into war in the early 1970s. After the signing of the ceasefire agreement, two-thirds of the territory of Jammu and Kashmir remained with India, one-third with Pakistan. From 1977 to 1988, the country was under military rule. From 1994-1995, riots broke out in Karachi, resulting in the deaths of several thousand people. Pakistan is a member of the UN, GATT, ILO, IMF, WHO.
The climate of the country differs sharply in different regions. In the mountainous regions of the north and west, winter temperatures drop below zero. In the Indus Valley, the average winter temperature is 13o C, in summer - from 32o C to 49o C. It rains infrequently in Pakistan (mainly in July and August). Punjab receives the most moisture - about 500 mm per year, the south-western and south-eastern regions of the country receive the least - less than 125 mm of precipitation per year. On the slopes of the mountains in the north of the country spruce, evergreen oak, and cedar grow. The fauna is represented by bear, deer, wild boar, and crocodile. Rivers and coastal waters contain large quantities of various types fish
The country's most significant museums are: the National Museum of Pakistan, with a collection of artifacts from the history of the Indus Valley civilizations, as well as Buddhist and Islamic art in Karachi; Lahore Museum, Industrial and Commercial Museum - both in Lahore; Peshawar Museum with a collection of sculptures from the ancient Gandhara civilization in Peshawar. Among the architectural and historical attractions of Pakistan in Islamabad are the National Assembly building; the Faisal Mosque, built in 1985, is shaped like a nomadic tent and has 4 minarets, each 90 m high. In Marzan there is a rock with one of the inscriptions of King Asopus, who ruled in the 3rd century BC. In Sialkot there is a shrine to the founder of Sikhism, Guru Nanak; 12th century fort. Lahore has a large number of architectural monuments from the period of the Mughal Empire, among them the tomb of Emperor Jahangir (17th century), located in a garden surrounded by a wall with four minarets. In Karachi - the tomb of the founder of Pakistan - Mohammad Ali Jinnah.
Encyclopedia: cities and countries. 2008 .
Pakistan (Islamic Republic of Pakistan) is a state in South Asia. It borders on Iran in the west, Afghanistan in the northwest, and India in the northeast and east. (cm. India), in the south it is washed by the Arabian Sea. Area - 796 thousand sq. km; population - 165.7 million people. The official languages are Urdu and English (60% of the population speaks Punjabi, 16% Pashto, 12% Sindhi). The capital is Islamabad.
According to the nature of the relief on the territory of Pakistan, two large areas are distinguished - the Indus Plain and mountain formations belonging to the Hindu Kush system and the Iranian Plateau. The main features of natural landscapes were formed under the influence of an arid climate, not only on the flat Indus Plain, but also in the area of powerful mountain ranges stretching north of the plain across Pakistan. The vegetation cover is dominated by drought-resistant species, high mountain peaks are covered with snow caps, and only in the northeast, among the mountain ranges that intercept monsoon moisture, dense coniferous and broad-leaved forests grow.
About 30% of the population lives in Pakistan's cities. The largest cities are Islamabad, Lahore, Rawalpindi, Hyderabad, Karachi, Peshawar. All of them, as a rule, have certain common features. They have a traditional "eastern" city, which arose many centuries ago and is surrounded by a wall with a gate. Very narrow streets, usually without sidewalks, are filled with pedestrians, cyclists, and carts. Life centers around a dusty bazaar formed by countless small shops. Central, heavily over-densified neighborhoods combine residential, administrative, cultural, business and other functions. Outside the city walls, in large cities during the colonial period, cantonments arose - neighborhoods with barracks of military units, under the protection of which the British colonial administration was located, as well as buildings of large European trading firms. Later, local nobility settled in the cantonments. The capital Islamabad is a relatively young city (until 1959 the capital was Karachi), planning solution which was developed by the Greek architect A. Doxiadis. Islamabad includes features of both a modern European city and elements of traditional architecture.
India's gaining of independence. Development of India and Pakistan. After the end of World War II, India experienced the rise of a national liberation movement. The British authorities, trying to stay in India, maneuvered, combining the methods of his brutal suppression of speeches with concessions and actions aimed at splitting the Indians.
Under the pretext of protecting the interests of Muslims and other minorities, in 1946 the authorities established a system of elections to the Central Legislative Assembly by religious curiae, which exacerbated the conflict between the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Muslim League. The INC program included demands for the independence of the country and equality of all its citizens, the unity of Hindus, Muslims and adherents of other religions. The main demands of the Muslim League were the division of India into two states along religious lines and the creation of the Muslim state of Pakistan (“the land of the pure”).
The INC and the Muslim League received a majority in their curiae, but in a number of provinces a considerable part of Muslims supported the INC program. The overwhelming majority of the population spoke out against English rule.
The INC included representatives of various social strata and was very authoritative due to many years of opposition to the colonialists. The most popular leaders of the INC were M. Gandhi and J. Nehru.
In August 1946, a provisional government headed by Nehru was created. The Muslim League refused to join the government and declared the beginning of a direct struggle for Pakistan. In Calcutta, pogroms broke out in Hindu neighborhoods, and in response, Muslim neighborhoods went up in flames. Clashes between Hindus and Muslims, which escalated into massacres, spread to other parts of the country.
In February 1947, the British government announced its intention to grant India dominion rights subject to its division along religious lines into the Indian Union and Pakistan. The principalities themselves decided which of the dominions they would join. The INC and the Muslim League accepted this plan.
In a short period, a huge number of refugees moved from Pakistani units to Indian areas and vice versa. The death toll numbered in the hundreds of thousands. M. Gandhi spoke out against inciting religious hatred. He demanded that acceptable conditions be created for the Muslims remaining in India. This led to accusations of betrayal of Hindu interests. In January 1948, M. Gandhi was assassinated by a member of one of the Hindu religious organizations.
On August 14, 1947, the establishment of the Dominion of Pakistan was proclaimed. The leader of the Muslim League, Liquiat Ali Khan, became the head of the government of Pakistan. The next day, the Indian Union declared its independence. Of the 601 princely states, the vast majority acceded to India. The first government of the country was headed by J. Nehru.
When dividing the territory, neither geographical boundaries, nor economic ties between regions, nor national composition were taken into account. 90% of all mineral reserves, textile and sugar industries are concentrated on Indian territory. Most of the areas producing bread and industrial crops went to Pakistan.
The most tense situation has developed in the principality of Kashmir. It was to become part of the Indian Union, although the majority of the population was Muslim. In the fall of 1947, Pakistani troops invaded western Kashmir. The Maharaja announced his accession to India, and Indian troops entered Kashmir. The Kashmir issue became a bone of contention between India and Pakistan and one of the main reasons for the Indo-Pakistani wars of 1965 and 1971. As a result of the 1971 war, the state of Bangladesh was formed on the site of East Pakistan.
In 1949, India adopted a Constitution proclaiming it a federal republic (union of states). Victory in all elections until the end of the 70s. INC won. Its leaders advocated the development of a mixed economy with a strong position of the state in it. Agrarian reform and various social transformations were carried out. The Indian economy, despite all the difficulties, developed quite successfully. Since the end of the 20th century. The country began to experience rapid growth in advanced technologies. A nuclear weapon test was carried out.
In foreign policy, India has taken a course of non-participation in blocs and of fighting for peace. Friendly relations were maintained with the USSR. After Nehru's death, the post of prime minister passed to his daughter Indira Gandhi. After the assassination of I. Gandhi in 1984, her son Rajiv Gandhi, who was killed in 1991, became Prime Minister. These murders were associated with the intensification of the nationalist and separatist movement in the country (Sikhs, Tamils). At the end of the 20th century. The INC experienced splits and lost its monopoly on power. Representatives of Hindu parties (Prime Minister A. Vajpayee) came to rule the country. At the beginning of the 21st century. The INC again won the majority in the parliamentary elections (M. Singh became Prime Minister).
Pakistan's political development is characterized by instability. The army played a major role in the country, often carrying out military coups. In foreign policy, Pakistan followed a pro-American course. The country's economy has developed relatively successfully (Pakistan has also developed atomic weapons), although, as in India, a significant part of the population continues to live in poverty. At the beginning of the 21st century. speeches demanding a strengthening of the role of Islam in the life of society have become more frequent.
Development of China in the 50s - 70s. XX century As a result of the communist victory in Civil War in 1949, the remnants of the Kuomintang, under the cover of the US air force and navy, fled to the island of Taiwan. On October 1, 1949, the creation of the People's Republic of China (PRC) was proclaimed. The People's Government of the People's Republic of China was headed by Mao Zedong.
The new Chinese leadership has set a course for building socialism. Industrial enterprises were nationalized, and cooperatives were created in rural areas. In the 50s China cooperated closely with the USSR, which provided it with enormous assistance in the development of industry, agriculture, and culture. During this period, the country successfully industrialized.
At the end of the 50s. Mao Zedong set a course for ultra-fast rates of development. The “Great Leap Forward” began, which was an attempt to “enter communism” under the slogan “A few years of hard work - and ten thousand years of happiness.” As a result, chaos reigned in the economy, and the country was gripped by a terrible famine. The “Great Leap Forward” policy caused discontent among a number of party leaders. To suppress their resistance from 1965 - 1966. On the initiative of Mao Zedong, the so-called “cultural revolution” was organized. The forces of youth (“Hungweipings” - red guards) launched an offensive against officials under the slogan “Fire at the headquarters!” Hundreds of thousands of party and government workers were executed or deported to distant areas for “re-education.” During this period, relations between China and the USSR worsened, and armed clashes occurred in 1969 (Damansky Island on the Ussuri River). In 1972, the PRC entered into an agreement with the United States.
The death of Mao Zedong on September 9, 1976 led to an intensification of the internal political struggle. Fanatical adherents of Mao's policies (the "Gang of Four") were arrested. The party and state were headed by Deng Xiaoping, a former associate of Mao who suffered during the Cultural Revolution. The policy of “four modernizations” proclaimed in 1978 provided for transformations in the fields of industry, agriculture, culture and the rearmament of the army.
Modern China. During the 80s - 90s. In China, under the leadership of the Communist Party, serious reforms were carried out that dramatically transformed the appearance of the country. Reforms began with agriculture. Most of the cooperatives were dissolved, each peasant household received a plot of land on a long-term lease. The food problem was gradually solved. Industrial enterprises were given independence, and market relations developed. Private enterprises appeared. Foreign capital was increasingly penetrating into China. By the end of the 20th century. the volume of industrial production increased 5 times, Chinese goods began a victorious expansion abroad, including in the United States. The standard of living of a significant part of the population has increased.
The successful economic development of the country (production growth from 7 to 15% per year), which began to be called the “workshop of the 21st century,” continues to this day. Economic achievements were evidenced by the launch of China's first spacecraft with an astronaut on board in 2003 and the development of plans for a mission to the Moon. In terms of economic potential, China has taken second place in the world, and has overtaken the United States in a number of indicators. The Chinese clearly demonstrated their enormous successes during the Olympic Games in Beijing in 2008.
Political power in China remained unchanged. An attempt by some students and intellectuals to launch a liberalization campaign during the Tiananmen Square protests in Beijing in 1989 was brutally suppressed. The country's leading force is still the CPC, which claims to "build socialism with Chinese characteristics."
In foreign policy, the PRC has achieved considerable success: Hong Kong (Hong Kong) and Mokao (Aomen) were annexed to China. Since the mid-80s. Relations with the USSR normalized. China has established friendly relations with Russia and other post-Soviet states.
Pakistan(Urdu پاکِستان - “land of the pure”, English Pakistan [ˈpækɪsˌtæn]), full name - Islamic Republic of Pakistan (Urdu اسلامی جمہوریہ پاکِستان Islami Jumhuriye Pakistan, English Islamic Republic of Pakistan) - state in South Asia. Pakistan came into existence in 1947 as a result of the partition of British India.
It is washed by the waters of the Arabian Sea in the south, bordered by Iran in the southwest, Afghanistan in the northwest and north, China in the northeast and India in the east. Land borders: India - 2912 km, Afghanistan - 2430 km, Iran - 909 km, China - 523 km.
Pakistan is the sixth most populous country in the world and has the second largest Muslim population in the world after Indonesia. Pakistan is a member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, the World Trade Organization, an observer in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, a member of the G33 developing countries, the Group of 77 developing countries.
Story
Ancient period
In the III-II millennia BC. e. on the territory of Pakistan was the center of one of ancient civilizations in the history of mankind - Harappan. In the 1st millennium BC. e. Aryans settled in Pakistan. After the campaigns of Alexander the Great, the spirit of Hellenism penetrated into Western Indian cities (such as Taxila). The powerful Kushan kingdom is formed - the first center of the spread of Buddhism.
Since the 8th century AD. e. Islam begins to spread throughout the country. In the Middle Ages, large Muslim states were formed led by the Ghaznavids and Ghurids. After the collapse of the Mughal Empire in the 18th century, there was a rise in Sikh nationalism in Sindh, Balochistan, and Punjab.
Colonial period
In the 19th century, the territory of Pakistan was captured by British troops and included in British India.
One of the spiritual founders of the state was the poet Iqbal, head of the Muslim League, an organization of leaders of separatist tendencies. It was Iqbal who proposed in 1930 the creation of an independent Muslim state that would include Punjab, Sindh, North West Frontier Province (NWFP) and Balochistan. The name for the state was proposed back in 1933 by a Muslim student, Chaudhuri Rahmat Ali, who studied at Cambridge. Pakistan literally means "land of the pure", it is an acronym: "P" is for Punjab, "A" is for Afghans from the border (i.e. NWFP Pashtuns), "K" is for Kashmir, "S" is for Sindh, and "Tan" " - from Baluchistan. On March 23, 1940, the historic Pakistan Resolution was adopted in Lahore, which proclaimed the principles of the existence of the Muslim community in an independent state.
Modern period
In 1947, during the division of British India, thanks to the efforts of the Muslim League, the state of Pakistan was formed, which included the northeastern and northwestern regions of Hindustan with a predominantly Muslim population. The first Governor-General of Pakistan as an independent administrative unit was Jinnah, and the country's first Prime Minister was Liaquat Ali Khan. In 1971, East Pakistan becomes the independent state of Bangladesh.
Pakistan fought wars with India in 1965 and 1971. In 1977 there was a military coup. During this period, Pakistan sided with the United States and supported the Mujahideen, who were waging an anti-government war in neighboring Afghanistan. Mujahideen training camps were located in Pakistan. After the death of President Zia-ul-Haq in a plane crash on August 17, 1988, power passed to the civilian government.
Acting President Ghulam Ishaq Khan called new parliamentary elections, in which the Pakistan People's Party won a relative majority. Benazir Bhutto became the country's prime minister. The new government restored democratic rights and freedoms and ended the state of emergency. Nevertheless, the situation in the country continued to deteriorate, and armed clashes broke out in Sindh every now and then. In August, Bhutto's government was dismissed.
After the elections, Nawaz Sharif became the new prime minister.
In the 1990s, Pakistan's nuclear program developed under the leadership of Abdul Qadir Khan, which became the reason for the US imposing sanctions against Pakistan. In 1999, a military coup took place and General Pervez Musharraf came to power.
Pakistan's northwestern region of Waziristan has been a Taliban stronghold since the early 2000s. In 2004, the Taliban seized de facto power in the region.
After September 11, 2001, Pakistan officially stopped supporting the Taliban regime and supported US intervention against the Taliban.
On February 18, 2008, general elections were held in Pakistan, which were postponed from January 8, 2008 due to the assassination of Benazir Bhutto. In the elections, the Pakistan People's Party won a majority of votes and formed an alliance with the Pakistan Muslim League. On August 18, 2008, Pervez Musharraf resigned as President of Pakistan amid threats of impeachment. In the presidential elections that followed, Pakistan People's Party candidate Asif Ali Zardari won and became the President of Pakistan.
As of June 2009, the territories of Pakistan bordering Afghanistan are almost not controlled by the authorities of this state. On May 7, 2009, Pakistani Prime Minister Yousuf Reza Gilani announced that he had ordered the army to destroy the terrorists. Fighting began with the use of aircraft, tanks and artillery with the aim of capturing the administrative center of the Swat district - the city of Mingaor.
Political structure
Pakistan is a federal republic consisting of 4 provinces (Punjab, Sindh, North West Frontier and Balochistan). In addition to the provinces, Pakistan also includes the Northern Territories and Free Kashmir (recognized by Pakistan as an independent state, but actually part of it), disputed by India.
Constitution
The first Constitution of Pakistan was adopted on March 23, 1956. The constitution stated that the president of the country must be a Muslim. This article was preserved in the 1962 constitution, which was in force under Ayub Khan.
In 1972, a new Constitution was adopted, which was in force until 1977, when a military coup led by General Zia-ul-Haq was carried out, after which it was suspended until 1985.
According to the Constitution, Pakistan is a mixed federal democratic republic. Islam is the state religion of the country.
Executive branch
The head of state is the president, elected by the federal parliament (upper house (Senate) and lower house (National Assembly) for a term of 5 years.
The President of Pakistan is and has the following powers:
- is the head of the executive branch, part of the legislative branch;
- is the supreme commander armed forces countries
- has the right to pardon, cancel and commute the sentence of any court
- makes appointments:
prime minister members of government
provincial governors
members of the Supreme Court of Pakistan and provincial high courts
Chairman of the Civil Service Commission
Chief Election Commissioner and members of the Election Commission
senior military leaders.
The government, approved by the president, is formed and headed by the prime minister, who usually represents the majority party or coalition in the National Assembly. The Prime Minister must be a Muslim and is appointed by the President from among the members of the National Assembly. The prime minister must enjoy the confidence of the majority of his deputies. On his advice, the president appoints ministers. The government develops bills and submits them for discussion in parliament.
After the parliamentary elections in 2008, Yusuf Reza Gilani was confirmed as the new Prime Minister on March 24
Legislature
The Senate consists of 100 members elected by members of the lower house of the federal parliament and provincial legislatures on a majority basis. The term of office of the Senate is 6 years. One third of the Senate is renewed every 2 years. The National Assembly consists of 342 deputies, 272 of whom are elected by the population by direct secret ballot using a system of proportional representation for a term of 5 years. 60 seats are provided for women, 10 seats are reserved for representatives of religious minorities.
Judicial branch
The legal branch of government is represented by the Supreme Court (whose members are appointed by the president) and the federal Islamic Sharia court.
The Chairman and members of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President. The Supreme Court hears disputes between the central and provincial governments, as well as between provinces. The Supreme Court of Pakistan is the final court of appeal in cases involving issues of law related to the interpretation of the constitution, when it comes to capital punishment, etc., gives opinions on issues of law submitted to it by the president, exercises control over the observance of fundamental rights of citizens , makes decisions on the constitutionality of certain actions of state bodies and their competence.
The provinces have their own High Courts, their chairmen and members are appointed by the president. The lower courts (from local to district) are divided into criminal and civil and are appointed by provincial governors.
During the reign of Zia-ul-Haq, the Federal Sharia Court was also created, which decided whether laws were in accordance with the canons of Islamic law.
Geographical position
Pakistan is located in the northwest of South Asia, stretching from southwest to northeast for 1500 km. Within Pakistan, three orographic regions can be distinguished: the lowland east, the mid-mountain west and the high-mountain north. In the south, the territory of Pakistan is washed by the waters of the Arabian Sea, which forms low, slightly indented shores.
Relief
The Indus Valley alluvial lowland is the western part of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, located on the outskirts of the Hindustan Platform. It lies almost entirely below 200 m and is characterized by a monotonous relief with small slopes. Most of the lowland along the left bank of the Indus is occupied by the Thar Desert. The western and northwestern parts of Pakistan are occupied by the marginal ridges of the Iranian Plateau - Makran, Kirthar, Chagai, Tobacacar, Suleiman Mountains, which are almost parallel chains of mountains up to 3452 m high. The slopes of the ridges facing the Arabian Sea and the Indo-Gangetic Plain are steep ; the opposite ones, descending towards the plateaus of Balochistan, are gentle. Within Balochistan, high (up to 3000 m), relatively level areas alternate with intermountain basins, dissected by numerous dry river beds. The most powerful mountain ranges with deeply dissected river valleys and covered with large glaciers are located in the far north of Pakistan and belong to the Hindu Kush, Himalaya and Karakoram mountain systems. The latter is located in the Pakistani-controlled part of Kashmir. The highest points of the country are the city of Tirichmir (7690 m) in the Hindu Kush and the city of Chogori (8611 m) in the Karakoram. In Pakistan there are about 40 peaks exceeding 7000 meters. All mountainous regions of Pakistan belong to the young Alpine-Himalayan mobile belt. The most important mineral resources are oil, gas and coal, confined to the sedimentary complexes of the outskirts of the Hindustan Platform and ores of ferrous and non-ferrous metals in folded areas.
Climate
The climate in Pakistan is dry continental tropical, in the north-west it is subtropical, in the mountains in the north of the country it is more humid with a clearly defined altitudinal zone. Winter on the plain is warm (12-16 °C, on the coast up to 20 °C), in the highlands it is severe (up to −20 °C). Summer is hot (in the deserts 35 °C, on the coast 29 °C, in the mountains and plateaus of the Iranian Plateau 20-25 °C), in the highlands - frosty (at altitudes from 5000 m - below 0 °C). Annual precipitation ranges from 50 mm in the Thar Desert to 100–200 mm in Sindh, 250–400 mm in the valleys and plateaus of the Iranian Plateau, 350–500 mm in the foothills and 1000–1500 mm in the mountains in the north of the country. Most of the precipitation falls during the southwest monsoon (July - September), within the Iranian Plateau - in the winter-spring period.
Hydrology
The largest river of Pakistan is the Indus, the basin of which contains most of the country. Rivers in the west are either drainless or have local flow into the Arabian Sea. The main tributary of the Indus is the Sutlej, which collects water from the main rivers of Punjab (Chinab, Ravi, Jhelum, Beas) and releases water to large irrigation canals (Dipalpur, Pakpattan, Panjnad). Large rivers experience summer floods caused by monsoon rains and melting glaciers in the mountains.
Vegetation
The vegetation of Pakistan is predominantly semi-desert and desert, the most sparse in the Thar Desert, where sandy ridges predominate, semi-fixed with xerophytic shrubs (acacia, calligonum...) and tough grasses. On the Indus Plain, the natural vegetation is semi-deserts and deserted savannas (chya, wormwood, capers, astragalus...), along the Indus and other rivers there are strips of tugai trees, in the Indus delta and along the coast of the Arabian Sea there are mangroves in places. Semi-desert formations of thorny cushion-shaped shrubs are widespread on the Iranian Plateau, and rare thickets of pistachio and juniper are found in the mountains of Balochistan. In the mountains in the north of the country at an altitude of 1500-3000 m there are separate areas of deciduous (oak, chestnut) and coniferous (spruce, fir, pine, Himalayan cedar) forests. In the valleys near villages there are plantations date palm, citrus fruits, olives, orchards. Mulberry plantations are frequent along irrigation canals.
Animal world
The fauna of Pakistan is represented by Indo-African, Central Asian and Mediterranean species. Of the large mammals in the mountains, there are leopard, snow leopard, brown and white-breasted bear, fox, wild goats and sheep, Persian gazelle; on the plains there are hyenas, jackals, wild boars, antelopes, goitered gazelles, kulans, wild donkeys, and numerous rodents. The world of birds is diverse (eagles, vultures, peacocks, parrots). There are many snakes, including poisonous ones, and there are crocodiles in the Indus. Among invertebrates, scorpions, ticks, and malaria mosquitoes are common. The Arabian Sea is rich in fish (tuna, herring, sea bass, Indian salmon), crustaceans (shrimp) and sea turtles.
Economy
Pakistan is an industrial-agrarian country with a diverse economy. Agriculture continues to play a large role in the country's economy and occupies 20.8% of total GNP, although industry is actively developing and already accounts for 24.3% of GNP (in 2009). At the same time, 43% of workers are employed in agriculture, and 20% in industry. The unemployment rate is 15.2% (in 2009).
It is characterized by high dependence on weather conditions, on which such industries as agriculture, textile industry, hydropower, and water transport directly depend.
In Pakistan, spatial differences in the economy are pronounced, due to the combined action of various factors. There are 4 historical and geographical regions, territorially closely coinciding with the administrative provinces - Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan and the North-West Frontier Province, including the tribal areas in the latter. Punjab is most distinguished by agricultural production; up to 2/3 of wheat, cotton and sugar cane are produced here.
In the 2000s, Pakistan's economy showed steady economic growth of approximately 7% per year.
Pakistan's GDP growth in fiscal year 2005 (ended June 30, 2005) was 8.4%. Two-thirds of Pakistan's exports are from the textile and clothing industry. The main agricultural crops are cotton and wheat.
The government of Pervez Musharraf pursued a relatively liberal economic policy, last years Several large banks, the largest telecommunications company and a number of others were privatized.
International trade
Exports ($21.1 billion in 2008) - textiles, rice, leather goods, carpets.
The main buyers are the USA 16.1%, UAE 11.7%, Afghanistan 8.6%, UK 4.5%, China 4.2%.
Imports ($38.2 billion in 2008) - oil, petroleum products, machinery, plastics, vehicles, iron and steel, tea.
The main suppliers are China 14.3%, Saudi Arabia 12.2%, UAE 11.3%, Kuwait 5.5%, USA 4.8%.
Currency
The Pakistani Rupee (PRe, PRs) is divided into 100 paise. There are banknotes in denominations of 1000, 500, 100, 50, 20, 10, 5, 2 and 1 rupee, as well as coins in denominations of 2 and 1 rupee, 50, 25 and 10 paise.
Population
Pakistan is one of the largest countries in the world in terms of population (174.6 million people, 6th place in the world - estimate as of July 2009). According to some forecasts, at current trends, by 2020 the population of Pakistan could reach more than 200 million people.
The bulk of the population lives in the Indus River Valley. The largest cities of Pakistan are located in the eastern part of the country (Karachi, Lahore, Rawalpindi, etc.). The country's urban population is 36% (in 2008).
Ethnic composition: Punjabis 44.7%, Pashtuns 15.4%, Sindhis 14.1%, Saryaks 8.4%, Muhajirs 7.6%, Baluchis 3.6%, etc. (6.3%).
The majority of believers - 95% - are Muslims: (Sunnis 75%, Shiites 20%), 5% are Christians and Hindus.
Almost 50% of the population is literate (63% of men and 36% of women, 2005 estimate).
Languages
The official languages are Urdu and English; approximately 38% of the population speaks Punjabi, 16% Pashto, 12% Sindhi, 7% Urdu.
Religion
Pakistan is the second largest Muslim country in the world and the second largest Shia Muslim country. 96% of the population is Muslim, of which 75% are Sunni and 20% are Shia.
Religious composition of the population:
Muslims - 173,000,000 (96%).
Hindus - 3,200,000 (1.85%)
Christians - 2,800,000 (1.6%)
Sikhs - 20,000 (0.001%)
as well as Parsis, Ahmadis, Buddhists, Jews, Baha'is and animists
Armed forces
Pakistan's armed forces are the sixth largest in the world. This includes the ground forces, navy, air force and semi-army formations involved in resolving local conflicts.
The army in Pakistan has always had enormous influence in the country. Generals often moved to high positions in the civil administration, actively participated in the political events of the country, declared a state of emergency and established control over the government. The latest example of this kind is the 1999 military coup led by Pervez Musharraf.
The Pakistani army took part in three major conflicts with India (1947, 1965 and 1971), in the Kargil War. During the Afghan war of 1979-1989, Pakistan supported the Taliban, waging an anti-government war in Afghanistan, and their training camps were located here.
Culture
Pakistan's culture is based on its Muslim heritage, but also includes pre-Islamic traditions from the peoples of the Indian subcontinent. The century-long British rule also had a serious impact on it. In recent decades, especially among young people, the influence of American culture has also been noticeable: Hollywood films, American video games, cartoons, comics, books, as well as fashion (wearing jeans and baseball caps), fast food, drinks, etc. are popular.
Music
In music and dance, the local trends observed in Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sindh and Baluchistan differ sharply from those characteristic of the Urdu-speaking Pakistani community. In the first case, there is an emphasis on folk songs and dances, while in Urdu culture this motif has receded into the background. The reason is mainly that the majority of the inhabitants of the country who speak this language belong to the Muhajirs, who have lost their root ties to their native places in India. The Pakistan Arts Council strives to preserve the sustainability of regional styles in dance, music, sculpture and painting.
Holidays
Pakistan Day (March 23) - Lahore Resolution was adopted on this day in 1940
Iqbal Day (April 21) is the birthday of national poet Muhammad Iqbal
End of Ramadan fasting day
Eid-i Milad (May 25) - birthday of the Prophet Mohammed
Eid ul-Azkha (March 23-24) - a holiday on the occasion of the pilgrimage to Mecca
Independence Day (August 14)
Birthday of Jinnah, founder of Pakistan (December 25)
New Year
Sport
The most common sports in Pakistan are football, field hockey, tennis and table tennis, wrestling, boxing, weightlifting, golf, polo, swimming, squash, baseball and cricket.
Cricket
The most popular sport in the country is cricket. The Pakistan national cricket team is one of the strongest in the world and competes for leadership in international competitions with rivals from Great Britain, Australia, and India. In 1992, Pakistan managed to win the Cricket World Cup. A special national committee has been created to guide and control the development of cricket.
Field hockey
Of the Olympic sports, field hockey is by far the most successful for Pakistan. Of their 10 Olympic medals in history, the Pakistanis won 8 in men's field hockey, including all gold and silver. Pakistanis became Olympic champions three times (1960, 1968 and 1984), won silver three times (1956, 1964, 1972) and bronze twice (1976 and 1992). Thus, from 1956 to 1984, Pakistan won awards at all 7 Olympics in which it took part (Pakistan boycotted the 1980 Games in Moscow). It was Pakistan in 1960 in Rome that managed to interrupt the winning streak of India, which had won gold at 6 Olympics in a row (Pakistan beat India 1-0 in the final). The bronze medal of hockey players at the 1992 Olympics in Barcelona remains at the moment the last Olympic award for Pakistanis. Two more Olympic medals were brought to Pakistan by freestyle wrestler Mohammad Bashir (bronze in 1960) and boxer Syed Hussain Shah (bronze in 1988).
Interesting Facts