Exercise:
- Read the proposed text;
- Write down the names and surnames of scientists and figures who made a significant contribution and influenced the development of anatomy as a science (full name, years of life, contribution to science)
The development and formation of ideas about anatomy and physiology begin in ancient times.
Among the first anatomists known to history are Alkemona from Cratona, who lived in the 5th century. BC e. He was the first to dissect (dissect) the corpses of animals in order to study the structure of their bodies, and suggested that the sense organs communicate directly with the brain, and the perception of feelings depends on the brain.
Hippocrates(OK. 460 - approx. 370 BC BC) - one of the outstanding medical scientists of Ancient Greece. He attached paramount importance to the study of anatomy, embryology and physiology, considering them the basis of all medicine. He collected and systematized observations about the structure of the human body, described the bones of the roof of the skull and the connections of bones with sutures, the structure of the vertebrae, ribs, internal organs, the organ of vision, muscles, and large vessels.
The outstanding natural scientists of their time were Plato (427-347 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC). Studying anatomy and embryology, Plato discovered that the brain of vertebrates develops in the anterior sections of the spinal cord. Aristotle, opening the corpses of animals, he described their internal organs, tendons, nerves, bones and cartilage. In his opinion, the main organ in the body is the heart. He named the largest blood vessel the aorta.
Had a great influence on the development of medical science and anatomy Alexandria School of Physicians, which was created in the 3rd century. BC e. Doctors of this school were allowed to dissect human corpses for scientific purposes. During this period, the names of two outstanding anatomists became known: Herophilus (b. c. 300 BC) and Erasistratus (c. 300 - c. 240 BC). Herophilus described the meninges and venous sinuses, cerebral ventricles and choroid plexuses, optic nerve and eyeball, duodenum and mesenteric vessels, prostate. Erasistratus described the liver, bile ducts, heart and its valves quite fully for his time; knew that blood from the lung enters the left atrium, then into the left ventricle of the heart, and from there through the arteries to the organs. The Alexandrian school of medicine also discovered a method for ligating blood vessels during bleeding.
The most outstanding scientist in various fields of medicine after Hippocrates was the Roman anatomist and physiologist Claudius Galen(approx. 130 - approx. 201). He first began teaching a course in human anatomy, accompanied by dissections of animal corpses, mainly monkeys. Dissection of human corpses was prohibited at that time, as a result of which Galen, facts without due reservations, transferred the structure of the animal's body to humans. Possessing encyclopedic knowledge, he described 7 pairs (out of 12) of cranial nerves, connective tissue, muscle nerves, blood vessels of the liver, kidneys and other internal organs, periosteum, ligaments.
Important information was obtained by Galen about the structure of the brain. Galen considered it the center of sensitivity of the body and the cause of voluntary movements. In the book “On the Parts of the Human Body,” he expressed his anatomical views and considered anatomical structures in inextricable connection with function.
A Tajik doctor and philosopher made a great contribution to the development of medical science Abu Ali Ibn Son, or Avicenna(c. 980-1037). He wrote the “Canon of Medical Science,” which systematized and supplemented information on anatomy and physiology, borrowed from the books of Aristotle and Galen. Avicenna's books were translated into Latin and reprinted more than 30 times.
Since the XVI-XVIII centuries. In many countries, universities were opened, medical faculties were established, and the foundation of scientific anatomy and physiology was laid. An especially great contribution to the development of anatomy was made by the Italian scientist and artist of the Renaissance. Leonardo da Vinci(1452-1519). He anatomized 30 corpses, made many drawings of bones, muscles, and internal organs, providing them with written explanations. Leonardo da Vinci laid the foundation for plastic anatomy.
A professor at the University of Padua is considered the founder of scientific anatomy. Andras Vesalius(1514-1564), who, based on his own observations made during autopsies of corpses, wrote a classic work in 7 books “On the structure of the human body” (Basel, 1543). In them he systematized the skeleton, ligaments, muscles, blood vessels, nerves, internal organs, brain and sense organs. Vesalius's research and the publication of his books contributed to the development of anatomy. Subsequently, his students and followers in the 16th-17th centuries. made many discoveries and described in detail many human organs. The names of some organs of the human body are associated with the names of these scientists in anatomy: G. Fallopius (1523-1562) - fallopian tubes; B. Eustachius (1510-1574) - Eustachian tube; M. Malpighi (1628-1694) - Malpighian corpuscles in the spleen and kidneys.
Discoveries in anatomy served as the basis for deeper research in the field of physiology. The Spanish physician Miguel Servetus (1511-1553), a student of Vesalius R. Colombo (1516-1559), suggested that blood passes from the right half of the heart to the left through the pulmonary vessels. After numerous studies, the English scientist William Harvey(1578-1657) published the book “An Anatomical Study on the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Animals” (1628), where he provided evidence of the movement of blood through the vessels of the systemic circulation, and also noted the presence of small vessels (capillaries) between arteries and veins. These vessels were discovered later, in 1661, by the founder of microscopic anatomy, M. Malpighi.
In addition, W. Harvey introduced vivisection into the practice of scientific research, which made it possible to observe the functioning of animal organs using tissue sections. The discovery of the doctrine of blood circulation is considered to be the founding date of animal physiology.
Simultaneously with the discovery of W. Harvey, a work was published Casparo Azelli(1591-1626), in which he made an anatomical description of the lymphatic vessels of the mesentery of the small intestine.
During the XVII-XVIII centuries. not only new discoveries in the field of anatomy appear, but a number of new disciplines begin to emerge: histology, embryology, and somewhat later - comparative and topographic anatomy, anthropology.
For the development of evolutionary morphology, the teaching played an important role C. Darwin(1809-1882) about the influence of external factors on the development of forms and structures of organisms, as well as on the heredity of their offspring.
Cell theory T. Schwann (1810-1882), evolutionary theory Ch. Darwin set a number of new tasks for anatomical science: not only to describe, but also to explain the structure of the human body, its features, to reveal the phylogenetic past in anatomical structures, to explain how his individual characteristics developed in the process of historical development of man.
To the most significant achievements of the 17th-18th centuries. refers to what was formulated by the French philosopher and physiologist Rene Descartes the idea of “reflected activity of the body.” He introduced the concept of reflex into physiology. Descartes' discovery served as the basis for the further development of physiology on a materialistic basis. Later, ideas about the nervous reflex, reflex arc, and the importance of the nervous system in the relationship between the external environment and the body were developed in the works of the famous Czech anatomist and physiologist G. Prohaski(1748-1820). Advances in physics and chemistry have made it possible to use more precise research methods in anatomy and physiology.
In the XVIII - XIX centuries Particularly significant contributions to the field of anatomy and physiology were made by a number of Russian scientists. M. V. Lomonosov(1711-1765) discovered the law of conservation of matter and energy, expressed the idea of the formation of heat in the body itself, formulated a three-component theory of color vision, and gave the first classification of taste sensations. Student of M. V. Lomonosov A. P. Protasov(1724-1796) - author of many works on the study of the human physique, structure and functions of the stomach.
Professor of Moscow University S. G. Zabelin(1735-1802) lectured on anatomy and published the book “A Tale on the Structures of the Human Body and How to Protect Them from Diseases,” where he expressed the idea of the common origin of animals and humans.
IN 1783 I. M. Ambodik-Maksimovich(1744-1812) published the “Anatomical and Physiological Dictionary” in Russian, Latin and French, and in 1788 A. M. Shumlyansky(1748-1795) in his book described the capsule of the renal glomerulus and urinary tubules.
A significant place in the development of anatomy belongs to E. O. Mukhina(1766-1850), who taught anatomy for many years, wrote the textbook “Anatomy Course”.
The founder of topographic anatomy is N. I. Pirogov(1810-1881). He developed an original method for studying the human body using cuts from frozen corpses. Author of such famous books as “A Complete Course in Applied Anatomy of the Human Body” and “Topographic Anatomy Illustrated by Sections Drawn through the Frozen Human Body in Three Directions.” N.I. Pirogov especially carefully studied and described the fascia, their relationship with blood vessels, giving them great practical importance. He summarized his research in the book “Surgical Anatomy of Arterial Trunks and Fascia.”
Functional anatomy was founded by an anatomist P. F. Les-gaft(1837-1909). His provisions on the possibility of changing the structure of the human body through the influence of physical exercises on the functions of the body form the basis of the theory and practice of physical education. .
P. F. Lesgaft was one of the first to use the radiography method for anatomical studies, the experimental method on animals and methods of mathematical analysis.
The works of famous Russian scientists K. F. Wolf, K. M. Baer and X. I. Pander were devoted to the issues of embryology.
IN XX century functional and experimental directions in anatomy were successfully developed by such research scientists as V. N. Tonkov (1872-1954), B. A. Dolgo-Saburov (1890-1960), V. N. Shevkunenko (1872-1952), V. P. Vorobyov (1876-1937), D. A. Zhdanov (1908-1971) and others.
The formation of physiology as an independent science in the 20th century. significantly contributed to advances in the field of physics and chemistry, which gave researchers precise methodological techniques that made it possible to characterize the physical and chemical essence of physiological processes.
I. M. Sechenov (1829-1905) entered the history of science as the first experimental researcher of a complex phenomenon in the field of nature - consciousness. In addition, he was the first who managed to study gases dissolved in the blood, establish the relative effectiveness of the influence of various ions on physical and chemical processes in a living organism, and clarify the phenomenon of summation in the central nervous system (CNS). I.M. Sechenov gained the greatest fame after the discovery of the process of inhibition in the central nervous system. After the publication of I.M. Sechenov’s work “Reflexes of the Brain” in 1863, the concept of mental activity was introduced into the physiological foundations. Thus, a new view was formed on the unity of the physical and mental foundations of man.
The development of physiology was greatly influenced by the work I. P. Pavlova(1849-1936). He created the doctrine of the higher nervous activity of humans and animals. Studying the regulation and self-regulation of blood circulation, he established the presence of special nerves, some of which strengthen, others delay, and others change the strength of heart contractions without changing their frequency. At the same time, I.P. Pavlov also studied the physiology of digestion. Having developed and put into practice a number of special surgical techniques, he created a new physiology of digestion. Studying the dynamics of digestion, he showed its ability to adapt to excitatory secretion when consuming various foods. His book “Lectures on the work of the main digestive glands” became a guide for physiologists around the world. For his work in the field of digestive physiology in 1904, I. P. Pavlov was awarded the Nobel Prize. His discovery of the conditioned reflex allowed him to continue the study of mental processes that underlie the behavior of animals and humans. The results of many years of research by I. P. Pavlov were the basis for the creation of the doctrine of higher nervous activity, according to which it is carried out by the higher parts of the nervous system and regulates the relationship of the body with the environment.
Physiology XX century characterized by significant achievements in the field of revealing the activities of organs, systems, and the body as a whole. A feature of modern physiology is a deep analytical approach to the study of membrane and cellular processes, and the description of the biophysical aspects of excitation and inhibition. Knowledge about the quantitative relationships between various processes makes it possible to carry out their mathematical modeling and find out certain disorders in a living organism.
18. Medicine of the Renaissance (jatrophysics and iatromechanics, Descartes, Borelli, Santorio).
Renaissance is a spiritual renewal of antiquity, meaning rebirth. This era in history was marked by a revival of interest in science and the world around us. The center of the revival is Southern Italy.
In first place were natural Sciences, they became the foundation of attempts to explain life. The culture of the Renaissance, placing man at the center of attention, began in the field of medicine with studying his body.
Rene Descartes(1596-1650). Western European rationalism originates in the philosophy of the French scientist René Descartes. The main feature of Descartes' philosophical worldview is the dualism of soul and body, “thinking substance” and material (“extended”) substance.
R. Descartes was one of the creators iatrophysicists(Greek iatrophysike; from iatros - doctor and physi" - nature) - a direction in natural science and medicine that examined the vital activity of all living things from the standpoint of physics. Iatrophysics studied natural phenomena in a state of rest and reflected the metaphysical direction in the philosophy of the 17th-18th centuries. Compared with medieval scholasticism, metaphysical thinking of the 17th century. was a progressive phenomenon.
Man, according to Descartes, is a being in which a mechanical body is connected to an immaterial soul. There is an interaction between body and soul that takes place in the pineal gland. The human body is an automaton, its driving force is heat, the concentration of which Descartes considered the heart; the source of heat is the processes of “combustion without flame” that occur in the body.
He gave a purely mathematical interpretation of the processes of blood circulation and digestion. He was the first to formulate the reflex principle of the main manifestations of life. These principles influenced representatives of the iatrophysical (iatromechanical) direction in medicine.
From the position iatromechanics a living organism is like a machine in which all processes can be explained using mathematics and mechanics. The main principles of iatromechanics are set out in the essay “On the Movement of Animals” by the Italian anatomist and physiologist Giovanni Alfonso Borelli(Borelli, Giovanni Alfonso, 1608-1679), one of the founders of biomechanics. He was the first to determine the center of gravity of the human body; showed that when bones and muscles act together, bones act as levers and muscles act as driving forces. He considered all the vital processes of the body purely mechanically (vessels, pipes, etc.). He was one of the first to describe typhoid fever, defining it as inflammation of the intestines due to the consumption of poor drinking water.
Among the outstanding achievements of the Renaissance is the invention at the end of the 16th century. thermometer. WITH. Santorio(Santorio, S.. 1561-1636) - doctor, anatomist and physiologist, created his own device with which he measured the heat of the human body. Santorio's device consisted of a ball and a long winding tube with divisions randomly marked on everything; the free end of the tube was filled with colored liquid. The subject took the ball into his mouth or warmed it with his hands. The warmth of the human body was determined over ten pulse beats by changes in the level of liquid in the tube. Santorio's device was quite bulky; it was installed in the courtyard of his house for public viewing and testing.
Santorio also designed an experimental scale chamber to study the quantitative assessment of food digestibility (metabolism) by systematically weighing himself, food and body waste. The results of his observations are summarized in the work “On the Medicine of Balance” (1614)
19. Medicine of the Renaissance (anatomy of A. Vesalius, physiology of W. Harvey). Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) Studied at three universities - in Louvain (Flanders) in the humanities, in Montpellier and Paris, where he studied medicine. In 1537, at the age of 23, in Padua he received his doctorate in medicine and soon, at the invitation of the Venetian Republic, became a professor at the University of Padua, the leading scientific center of that time. The founder of scientific normal anatomy He pointed out a number of errors of Galen - regarding the structure of the arm, pelvic girdle, sternum, etc., but above all - the heart. In 1543, Vesalius published his major work on anatomy “On the structure of the human body” (De humani corporis fabrica "), who presented the first open speech against Galen, Vesalius enriched science with his own reliable data obtained as a result of numerous dissections of the human body, corrected a large number of mistakes of his predecessors and, most importantly, for the first time brought all this knowledge into a system, that is, he made science out of anatomy. Vesalius was an innovator in the study and teaching of anatomy. He accompanied his lectures with demonstrations not only of the corpse, but also of the skeleton and the sitter. In the illustrations of his works, the corpse is not depicted lying down, motionless, but everywhere dynamically, in working poses, with tools, moreover, in a joyful nature, which is very characteristic of the Renaissance William Harvey (1578-1657) Harvey had predecessors - the ancient Chinese, Ibn -en-Nafis, Miguel Servetus and others, but none of them gave a picture of blood circulation as a whole and its scientific explanation. Harvey published his book “On the movement of the heart and blood in animals” (“De motu corclis et sanquimis in animaiiclus”) in 1628 year, after many years of work, it was with William Harvey that scientific normal physiology began. Harvey first applied the method of calculation to the study of processes in the body. He proved that: the mass of blood contained in the body must return back to the heart and cannot be formed in the liver and absorbed in the tissues; pulsation of the arteries is a consequence of the contraction of the heart. Harvey's main merit is the successful application of a new method: experiment and mathematical justification. And before him, blood circulation was described, but only Harvey was the first to experimentally prove its existence. Harvey, studying blood circulation, took the path of research and became (together with Fallopio and Malpighi and others) one of the founders of embryology. In his treatise “On the Birth of Animals,” Harvey objected to primitive ideas, preserved from ancient times, about the spontaneous generation of animals from silt, mud, etc.
20. Medicine of the Renaissance (surgery by A. Pare) In the Middle Ages, doctors were divided into two groups: 1) doctors (internal medicine) 2) surgeons (they had no scientific education, were not considered doctors and were not allowed into the class of doctors - artisans). In Paris, surgeons united in the “Brotherhood of St. Cosima,” and the doctors were part of the medical corporation at the University of Paris and very jealously guarded their rights and interests. Doctors were theory without practice, surgeons were practitioners. Gradation of surgeons: 1) long-sex (the most complex operations) 2) short-sex (minor surgery: dentistry, etc.) 3) bath attendants (simple manipulations) Official medicine stubbornly resisted the recognition of the equality of surgeons: they were forbidden to cross the boundaries of their craft and perform medical procedures (for example, giving enemas) and writing prescriptions. Surgeons were not allowed into universities. Training in surgery took place within the workshop (corporation), first on the principles of apprenticeship. Then surgical schools began to open. 1731 - the first Surgical Academy was opened. In 1743 it was equated to the Faculty of Medicine. At the end of the 18th century. It was surgical schools that became the basis on which higher medical schools of a new type were created. Thus ended the struggle between surgeons and doctors. Surgery in Western Europe did not have scientific methods of pain relief until the middle of the 19th century. With the advent of firearms in Europe in the 15th century. the nature of injuries has changed greatly: general complications have become more frequent. All this began to be associated with the penetration of “gunpowder poison” into the wounded body.
Johannes de Vigo. “The best way to treat gunshot wounds is to destroy gunpowder residues in the wound by cauterizing the wound surface with a hot iron or a boiling composition of resinous substances (to avoid the spread of “gunpowder poison” throughout the body). In the absence of pain relief, such a cruel method of treating wounds caused much more suffering than the wound itself" Ambroise Pare (1517-1590) Proposed a number of complex orthopedic devices - artificial limbs, joints with a system of gears First described a fracture of the femoral neck Significantly improved the amputation technique In European obstetrics, he is responsible for the rotation of the fetus onto a leg, known in ancient India, but forgotten in the Middle Ages Applied - ligation of blood vessels. The activities of Ambroise Paré largely determined the formation of surgery as a science and contributed to the transformation of an artisan surgeon into a full-fledged medical specialist. Renaissance surgery made significant progress. The treatment of gunshot wounds and bleeding has changed dramatically. In the absence of pain relief and antiseptics, medieval surgeons bravely performed craniotomy and stone cutting, resorted to radical treatment of hernias, and revived eye and plastic surgery operations that required jewelry craftsmanship. The transformation of surgery associated with the name of Ambroise Paré was continued by his many followers and successors.
21. Medicine of the New Age: preventive medicine of the 18th century. B. Ramazzini, E. Jenner In England, interest in disease prevention has increased. In July 1794, a bill on rural medical care was created. It determined the number of doctors (so-called surgeons, actually paramedics) in rural areas, the order of their appointment, the contents of “pharmacy boxes”, completed in the center and sent to villages, etc. 17-18 centuries. - the time of creation of a new natural science, the period of formation of scientific physiology, clinical and preventive medicine. The outstanding achievements of natural science and medical thought of the New Age served as the foundation for the development of medicine in the 19th and 20th centuries. The beginnings of practical activities in the field of hygiene and sanitation go back to ancient times. The emergence of the scientific foundations of hygiene is associated with the name of Bernardo Ramazzini (1633-1714). Bernardo Ramazzini (1633-1714) Italian doctor, founder of occupational hygiene and professional pathology as a branch of medicine. Honey. He received his education in Modena and Parma (1659), improved himself in Roman hospitals under the leadership of Rossi, and practiced medicine. Since 1682, he headed the department of theoretical medicine (pathology) at the University of Modena; from 1700 head. Department of Practical (Clinical) Medicine and at the same time Rector of the University of Padua. Ramazzini analyzed the causes of the spread of diseases, proposed possible methods of treating and preventing them, and demanded improved working conditions for manufacturing workers. For the first time, he talks about chronic intoxication as a hazard, the impact of which affects health gradually, about conducting a preliminary examination before hiring: are there any contraindications? He talks about the need to wash at least on holidays! Ramazzini described some anatomical defects that appear as a result of professional activity (“shoemaker’s chest,” visual impairment during minor work, etc.). Ramazzini described the professional pathology of a doctor in his time; here he included melancholy, indigestion and dysentery
Jenner Edward (1749-1823) - English physician, founder of smallpox vaccination. He studied medicine in London under the guidance of J. Gunther. From 1773 he was engaged in independent medical practice in Gloucestershire. He confirmed the opinion that people who have had cowpox do not get smallpox by inoculating an eight-year-old boy, James Phipps, with the contents of a pustule from the hand of peasant woman Sarah Nelma, who had contracted cowpox. A month and a half later, E. Jenner injected James with the contents of a pustule from a smallpox patient - the boy did not get sick. A repeated attempt to infect the boy with smallpox five months later also did not produce any results; James Phipps turned out to be immune to this disease. In 1798, Jenner summarized the results of his work in the article “A Study of the Causes and Effects of Cowpox” and introduced vaccination in the English army and navy. In 1803, the Royal Jenner Society was organized, the purpose of which was the widespread introduction of vaccination in England. In the first year and a half of its activity alone, 12 thousand people were vaccinated, and the mortality rate from smallpox decreased by more than three times. In 1808, smallpox vaccination in England became a state event. Many centuries before Jenner’s discovery, the ancient East used the method of inoculation (variaolation): the contents of the pustules of a patient with moderate smallpox were rubbed into the skin of the forearm of a healthy person, who, as a rule, suffered from a mild form of smallpox, although deaths were also observed. In the 18th century the wife of the English ambassador to Turkey, Mary Wortley Montagu, transferred the inoculation method from the East to England. Jenner's discovery was a turning point in the history of the fight against smallpox. The first vaccination against smallpox in Russia using his method was done in 1802 by Professor E. O. Mukhin to the boy Anton Petrov. It took almost 200 years for humanity to travel from the discovery of Jenner to the discovery of the smallpox virus (E. Paschen, 1906) and achieve the complete elimination of this dangerous infectious disease throughout the globe. The smallpox eradication program was proposed by the USSR delegation at the XI WHO Assembly in 1958 and implemented through the joint efforts of all countries of the world.
22+ 24 Modern Medicine: General pathology (pathological anatomy and physiology)
Pathological physiology - a branch of medicine that studies the patterns of occurrence, development and outcome of pathological processes; features and nature of changes in physiological functions in various pathological conditions of the body.
Origin stories
In 1542, the French physician Jean-François Fernel convincingly showed in his work that the onset of the disease and its further development revealed a number of completely new patterns, which, however, were not subject to the vital activity of a healthy organism. In this regard, the author identified a field of medicine that studied the vital functions of a “sick” organism. The author called this area “pathology”.
In 1791, A.F. Hecker’s work “Fundamentals of Pathological Physiology” was published, with the release of which this area of medicine underwent significant changes.
Pathological physiology took shape as an independent branch of science in Russia in the 19th century. The founders of pathological physiology in Russia are A. I. Polunin, A. B. FohtiV. V. Pashutin.
Pathological anatomy - a science that studies the structural basis of pathological processes - emerged from anatomy in the middle of the 18th century.
Its development in modern history is conventionally divided into two periods:
macroscopic
microscopic (related to the use of a microscope)
-1. Compiled a collection of anatomical drawings
2. Conducted post-mortem autopsies
3. Conducted research on the comparative anatomy of human organs and the human embryo
4. First described the thoracic duct, kidneys, larynx, organ of hearing, including the auditory tube
-5. Refuted more than 200 errors of C. Galen
–6. Performed Europe's first forensic autopsy
Determine the contribution of the Italian anatomist and physician G. Fallopius to the development of scientific anatomy
–2. Founded the Department of Pathological Anatomy at the University of Padua
3. Described the sphenoid sinuses, the chorda tympani in the middle ear, the facial nerve canal
4. Described the structure and functions of the fallopian tubes
5. Introduced a mirror into medical practice for diagnosing ear diseases
6. Gave names to the hard and soft palate, placenta, vagina
Determine the contribution of the French anatomist Ch. Etienne to the development of scientific anatomy
1. Examined the seminal vesicles
–2. Collection of over 250 anatomical drawings
–3. Founded the Department of Anatomy and Physiology at the University of Paris
4. Opened the subarachnoid space and studied the sympathetic trunk, proving its independence from the vagus nerve
-5. Published a reference book of new anatomical instruments
6. Described venous valves
Determine the contribution of the Dutch anatomist and physiologist R. de Graaf to the development of scientific anatomy and medicine
1. Described seminiferous tubules as “semen-making vessels”
2. He proposed to call the female reproductive glands ovaries
–3. Introduced the stethoscope into medicine
4. Established that the ovaries contain vesicles (“Graafian vesicles”)
5. Introduced a syringe and cannula into practice
6. Studied the chemistry of digestion and the action of pancreatic juice
Determine the contribution of the English anatomist and physiologist F. Glisson to the development of scientific anatomy
1. Introduced the concept of “irritability”
–2. Compiled the first anatomical atlas in Europe
3. First described the capsule covering the liver
-4. Refuted more than 200 errors
5. He proposed a device for stretching the spine
6. Described the disease rickets
Determine the contribution of the English physician and anatomist N. Highmore to the development of scientific anatomy
1. Described the maxillary sinus
2. Described the anatomical structure of the testicles
–3. Refuted more than 200 errors
-4. Introduced the stethoscope into medicine
-5. Developed a model of obstetric forceps
–6. Described the anatomy of the cerebral cortex
Name the Renaissance doctor who proposed a burning candle as a symbol of medicine and the motto “By shining on others, I burn”
-1. L. da Vinci
2. N. Tulp
–3. A. Vesalius
-4. L. Pasteur
-5. T.Paracelsus
–6. F.Haaz
The main achievement of the English physician, physiologist and embryologist W. Harvey
-1. Developed a vaccine against smallpox
2. Calculated and experimentally substantiated the theory of blood circulation...
–3. Invented the thermoscope
-4. Discovered penicillin
-5. Founder of neuroscience
–6. Introduced the stethoscope into medicine
Name the scientist who, in his theological book “The Restoration of Christianity,” was the first in Europe to describe the pulmonary circulation
-1. A. Vesalius
2. M.Servet
–3. N. Pirogov
-4. I. Semmelweis
-5. A. Pare
–6. I. Sechenov
Determine the contribution of the Spanish philosopher-theologian and physician M. Servetus to the development of medicine and physiology
-1. Calculated and experimentally substantiated the theory of blood circulation
–2. Created the doctrine of higher nervous activity
–3. For the first time in Europe he described reflexes
-4. For the first time in Europe he described the mechanism of the gastrointestinal tract.
5. For the first time in Europe he described the pulmonary circulation
–6. Compiled the first anatomical tables
Determine the contribution of the Italian doctor M. Malpighi to the development of medicine
1. Opened the capillaries
–2. Suggested a thermoscope
3. The first anatomist to use a microscope
4. One of the founders of histology and embryology
5. Described the cells of the cerebral cortex
6. Described the innervation of the tongue, skin layers, renal glomeruli, lymph nodes
Which statements correctly characterize iatrochemistry?
1. Iatrochemistry is an intermediate stage in the development of chemical science during the Renaissance; man was considered as a set of chemical processes
–2. The founder of iatrochemistry is Galen. His treatment system was based on the use of complex chemical compounds
3. The founder of iatrochemistry is Paracelsus. His treatment system was based on three elements: sulfur, mercury and antimony, and their compounds
4. The main goal of chemistry is the study of chemical processes in the human body and the search for effective medicines.
-5. The founder of iatrochemistry is Avicenna. His system was based on a gradual increase in the dose of poisons in order to develop the body's resistance
–6. The founder of iatrochemistry is Hippocrates. His system was based on the use of chemical elements in accordance with the 4 temperaments for treatment.
How did the Swiss scientist T. Paracelsus determine the purpose of chemistry?
-1. Chemistry should focus its efforts on finding gold
2. Chemistry creates cures for diseases
–3. Chemistry designed to obtain the philosopher's stone
4. Chemistry should study processes in the human body
-5. Chemistry must first create new poisons
–6. Chemistry should not be used in medicine
Determine the contribution of the Swiss scientist T. Paracelsus to the development of medicine and pharmacy
1. One of the founders of iatrochemistry
–2. Founder of military field surgery and traumatology
3. Introduced the concept of “herbal preparations” into pharmaceutical terminology
4. Combined the experimental method of understanding nature and the desire for magic and understanding the impact of celestial bodies on the destinies of people and their health
5. Theoretician and practitioner, founder of the experimental method in medicine
–6. Developed scholastic medicine
-1. L. da Vinci
–2. N. Tulp
–3. A. Vesalius
-4. L. Pasteur
5. T. Paracelsus
–6. R. Laennec
What, according to the Swiss scientist T. Paracelsus, makes a substance a poison or a medicine?
-1. The degree of cleanliness of the pharmacist's hands
–3. Dishes in which medicine is prepared and stored
-4. Mortar and pestle shape
-5. Chemical incompatibility of components
–6. Chemical composition of utensils and tools
Who, according to the Swiss scientist T. Paracelsus, should not be a doctor?
-1. Cynic, lyricist
2. Tormentor, executioner, servant of the executioner
–3. Christian
-4. Viceroy of God
-5. Ascetic
–6. Philosopher
Determine the contribution of the German physician and chemist G. Agricola to the development of medicine, pharmacy and chemistry
-1. Described infectious diseases
2. Information on metallurgical chemistry, mineral chemistry
3. Suggested measures to prevent occupational diseases
4. Work “On Mining and Metallurgy”
5. Contributed to the development of analytical chemistry
–6. Founder of neurosurgery
What infectious diseases were prevalent in Europe during the Renaissance?
1. Smallpox
–2. Rabies
3. Syphilis
-4. Chronic fatigue syndrome
–6. Chlamydia
183. During the Renaissance, scientists believed that the causes of epidemics were...
1. Earthquakes
2. "Miasma"
3. Special position of stars
-4. Viruses, bacteria
-5. The will of the gods and evil demons
–6. Non-sterile instruments
Who formulated the first scientifically based concept of the spread of infectious diseases - the “doctrine of contagion”?
-1. A. Vesalius
–2. L. Pasteur
3. G. Fracastoro
-4. L. da Vinci
–6. D. Samoilovich
Determine the contribution of the Italian doctor, astronomer, philosopher, physicist, poet, G. Fracastoro to the development of medicine
-1. Received the rabies vaccine
2. The doctrine of contagion (about the spread of infectious diseases)
3. Work “On contagion, contagious diseases and treatment”
4. Introduced the term “infection”, which meant “introduction”, “penetration”, “damage”
5. Poem “Syphilis, or the French disease”
–6. Discovered viruses
Name the doctor who suggested the name “infectious diseases”
-1. J. Fracastoro
2. K. Gufeland
-4. L. Pasteur
-5. A. Vesalius
–6. A. Yersin
Who is the founder of “humane surgery”?
-1. N.Sklifosovsky
–2. A. Vesalius
-4. N. Pirogov
-5. D.Larrey
Essay
in the discipline "Anatomy"
The main modern ways of development of anatomy.
Kyiv anatomical school.
The importance of scientific achievements for the development of human anatomy"
Performed:
1st year student
groups 11 f/l
Lapikova Marina
Yalta, 2012
Scientists who contributed to the study of anatomy, physiology and medicine ……………………………………………………….2
The main modern ways of development of anatomy……………..7
Kyiv anatomical school…………………………………11
The connection between anatomy and physiology and other sciences that study humans…………………………………………………………13
The importance for a person of knowledge about the structure and functions of his body………………………………………………………..14
List of references……………………………..16
Scientists who contributed to the study of anatomy, physiology and medicine
· Hippocrates(around 460 BC, Kos - 377 BC)
Ancient Greek physician, naturalist, philosopher, reformer of ancient medicine.
The works of Hippocrates, which became the basis for the further development of clinical medicine, reflect the idea of the integrity of the body; individual approach to the patient and his treatment; concept of anamnesis; doctrines about etiology, prognosis, temperaments.
· Aristotle(384 BC, Stagira - 322 BC)
- ancient Greek philosopher. Introduced the name "aorta". Aristotle noted the general similarities between humans and animals and laid the foundations for descriptive and comparative anatomy.
· Claudius Galen(129 or 131 - about 200)
- ancient physician Described about 300 human muscles. He proved that it is not the heart, but the brain and spinal cord that are “the center of movement, sensitivity and mental activity.” He concluded that “without a nerve there is not a single part of the body, not a single movement called voluntary, not a single feeling.” By cutting the spinal cord across, Galen showed the disappearance of sensitivity in all parts of the body lying below the cut site. He proved that blood moves through the arteries, and not “pneuma,” as previously thought.
He created about 400 works on philosophy, medicine and pharmacology, of which about a hundred have reached us. Collected and classified information on medicine, pharmacy, anatomy, physiology and pharmacology accumulated by ancient science.
Described the quadrigeminal midbrain, seven pairs of cranial nerves, and the vagus nerve; Conducting experiments on transection of the spinal cord of pigs, he demonstrated the functional difference between the anterior (motor) and posterior (sensitive) roots of the spinal cord.
· Paracelsus(1499 – 1541)
Famous doctor. He contrasted medieval medicine, which was based on the theories of Aristotle, Galen and Avicenna, with “spagyric” medicine, created on the basis of the teachings of Hippocrates. He taught that living organisms consist of the same mercury, sulfur, salts and a number of other substances that form all other bodies of nature; when a person is healthy, these substances are in balance with each other; disease means the predominance or, conversely, deficiency of one of them. He was one of the first to use chemicals in treatment.
Paracelsus is considered the forerunner of modern pharmacology; he wrote the phrase: “Everything is poison, and nothing is devoid of poisonousness; Just one dose makes the poison invisible.”
· Andreas Vesalius(1514 – 1654)
- Italian naturalist. Convinced that many of the anatomical texts of Galen, the famous Roman physician (c. 130–200 AD), were based on animal dissections and therefore did not reflect the specifics of human anatomy, Vesalius decided to undertake experimental studies of the human body. Studying the works of Galen and his views on the structure of the human body, Vesalius corrected over 200 errors of the canonized ancient author. The result was a treatise on the structure of the human body (De humani corporis fabrica, 1543).
· William Harvey(1578 – 1657)
- English physician, founder of physiology and embryology. Organized a public lecture in London. In this lecture, he first outlined his vision of the circulatory systems in the human body, as well as other warm-blooded animals, and conducted a number of experiments and experiments that allowed him to make a number of observations. He calculated that the blood moves in a circle, or rather, in two circles: a small one - through the lungs and a large one - through the whole body.
· Luigi Galvani(1787 – 1796)
- Italian doctor, anatomist, physiologist and physicist, one of the founders of electrophysiology. He was the first to study electrical phenomena during muscle contraction (“animal electricity”).
· Louis Pasteur(1822 – 1895)
- French microbiologist and chemist. Pasteur, having shown the microbiological essence of fermentation and many human diseases, became one of the founders of microbiology and immunology.
· Pirogov Nikolay Ivanovich(1810 – 1881)
- Russian surgeon and anatomist, naturalist and teacher. The main significance of all Pirogov’s activities is that with his selfless and often selfless work, he turned surgery into a science, equipping doctors with a scientifically based method of surgical intervention.
· Sechenov Ivan Mikhailovich(1829 -1905)
Outstanding Russian physiologist, encyclopedist, pathologist, histologist, toxicologist, psychologist, cultural scientist, anthropologist, naturalist, chemist, physical chemist, physicist, biochemist, evolutionist, instrument maker, military engineer, teacher, publicist, humanist, educator, philosopher and thinker -rationalist, founder of the physiological school
· Mechnikov Ilya Ilyich(1845 -1916)
- Russian and French biologist (zoologist, embryologist, immunologist, physiologist and pathologist). One of the founders of evolutionary embryology, the discoverer of phagocytosis and intracellular digestion, the creator of the comparative pathology of inflammation, the phagocytic theory of immunity, the founder of scientific gerontology. Winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1908).
· Palov Ivan Petrovich(1849 – 1936)
- one of the most authoritative scientists in Russia, physiologist, psychologist, creator of the science of higher nervous activity and ideas about the processes of regulation of digestion; founder of the largest Russian physiological school; winner of the Nobel Prize in Medicine and Physiology in 1904 “for his work on the physiology of digestion.”
· Botkin Sergey Petrovich(1832 – 1889)
A Russian general practitioner and public figure, he created the doctrine of the body as a single whole, subject to the will.
· Ukhtomsky Alexey Alekseevich(1875 – 1942)
- Russian and Soviet physiologist. The main discovery of Ukhtomsky is considered to be the principle of dominance that he developed - a theory that can explain some fundamental aspects of human behavior and mental processes. The principle of the dominant is described by him in the work “Dominant as a working principle of nerve centers” and in other scientific works. This principle was a development of the ideas of N. E. Vvedensky.
· Burdenko Nikolay Nilovich(1876 – 1946)
- Russian and Soviet surgeon, health care organizer, founder of Russian neurosurgery. Nikolai Burdenko created a school of experimental surgeons, developed methods for treating oncology of the central and autonomic nervous system, pathologies of the cerebrospinal fluid circulation, cerebral circulation, etc. He performed operations to treat brain tumors, which before Burdenko were rare throughout the world. He was the first to develop simpler and more original methods for performing these operations, making them widespread, developed operations on the dura mater of the spinal cord, and transplanted sections of nerves. He developed a bulbotomy - an operation in the upper part of the spinal cord to cut the nerve pathways that were overexcited as a result of brain injury.
GALVANI, Luigi
The Italian anatomist and physiologist Luigi Galvani, one of the founders of the doctrine of electricity, the founder of electrophysiology, was born in Bologna. In 1759 he graduated from the University of Bologna, where he studied first theology, and then medicine, physiology and anatomy; in 1762 he received the degree of Doctor of Medicine. He taught medicine at the University of Bologna, from where, shortly before his death, he was dismissed for refusing to take the oath to the Cisalpine Republic, founded in 1797 by Napoleon Bonaparte.
Galvani's first works were devoted to comparative anatomy. In 1771, he began experiments on animal electricity: he discovered and studied the phenomenon of contraction of the muscles of a dissected frog under the influence of electric current; observed the contraction of muscles when they were connected by metal to nerves or the spinal cord, and noticed that a muscle contracts when two different metals touch it simultaneously. Galvani explained these phenomena by the existence of “animal electricity”, thanks to which the muscles are charged like a Leyden jar. He outlined the results of observations and the theory of “animal electricity” in 1791 in his work “Treatise on the forces of electricity during muscular movement” (“De Viribus Electricatitis in Motu Musculari Commentarius”). With new experiments (published in 1797), Galvani proved that the frog muscle contracts without metal touching it - as a result of its direct connection to the nerve. Galvani's research was important for medical practice and the development of physiological experimental methods.
Galvani's experiments, which received the correct interpretation in the works, also contributed to the invention of a new current source - a galvanic cell. The phenomena themselves discovered by Galvani were called “galvanism” for a long time in textbooks and scientific articles. Electrophysiology, of which Galvani can be considered the father, now occupies an important place in science and practice.
Reproduction of the first experiment of Luigi Galvani. The essence of Galvani's first experiment is that when the neuromuscular system comes into contact with bimetallic tweezers, muscle contraction is observed. CONCLUSION: Galvani's first experiment with metal indirectly proves the presence of living electricity when a neuromuscular preparation is irritated with bimetallic tweezers. To directly prove “living electricity,” a second experiment was carried out without metal. Reproduction of Galvani's second experiment: We isolate the sciatic nerve, attach electrodes to it, and turn on the stimulator. We observe the spread of nervous excitement towards the lower leg and towards the thigh. CONCLUSION: Galvani's second experiment directly proves the presence of "living electricity".