Stresses play a very important role in the Russian language, indicating a change in intonation in what is said and changing the meaning of spoken words. Stress can emphasize the main and secondary things in speech. Its absence shows inexpressiveness of speech and unemotional feelings. These conditions, in turn, are indirect symptoms of psychological diseases or deviations in the speech apparatus, delays in its development. Therefore, it is very important to know what stress is, its types, and also be able to use it correctly in Russian. This definition refers to the branch of phonetics, which deals with the study of sounds in language and speech.
Definition
What is an accent? This is the sound and intonation highlighting of a specific speech component. Based on this, they are as follows:
- Logical stress - highlighting words in syntagma.
- Syntagmatic - highlighting syntagma in a phrase.
- Word stress is the emphasis of a syllable in a word.
It is the latter type that we have to deal with all the time. phrases implies the correct placement of stress in individual words.
Types of accents
Stresses are divided according to the method of isolating a syllable from a bar or word:
- Power (dynamic) stress - the emphasis of a syllable occurs using the force of exhalation.
- Tonic - the emphasis of a syllable occurs through the movement of the tone of the voice.
- Quantitative - a syllable is emphasized using a long sound.
- Quality - a change is taking place
Usually stresses are not absolutely pure; one type is usually accompanied by another. However, one of them is predominant.
In English, Czech, Russian and other languages, dynamic stress is usually found. In turn, tonic stress is more common in Chinese, Lithuanian and some other languages.
Dynamic stress can be weak or strong. Strong dynamic is common in Russian. To pronounce a stressed syllable, a force is used that is pushed by a stream of air from the lungs. Unstressed syllables change and weaken because there is no longer enough exhalation force for them. When the sound of unstressed syllables changes, this process is called reduction.
Place of stress
It is very important to be able to correctly place stress in any word, since it can be placed in different places. On this basis they distinguish:
- Fixed - it is located on a specific syllable.
- Free, which is otherwise called multi-place. It can fall on any syllable in a word, since it is not associated with any specific place in the word. This stress is used, for example, in Russian and English.
In turn, free stress is divided into two more subtypes:
- Free permanent. It should be noted that such stress always falls on the same syllable in different forms of a particular word. Most Russian words, as a rule, have a constant stress.
- Free movable. It is known that such stress falls on different syllables in different forms of one word. For example: write-shu and write-shish.
Free mobile stress in the Russian language is a phonological means and performs a semantic-discriminating function. For example: castle and castle.
As a rule, each word in Russian has one stress. Sometimes some independent and also function words do not have their own stress and are adjacent to some neighboring word as enclitics and proclitics.
Some particles include enclitics: tell me. Sometimes they can include some independent words: take by the hair.
Proclitics include particles, conjunctions, and monosyllabic prepositions. Certain monosyllabic prepositions in combination with some nouns can pull the stress onto themselves, while the next word becomes unstressed. For example: by the hand, without a trace.
Three-syllable and two-syllable function words can be weakly stressed or unstressed. Words that are formed by adding more than two stems are called polysyllabic. As a rule, along with one stress, they can also have a secondary one. The stressed syllable of the last stem of such a word always receives the main stress, and the secondary stress falls at its beginning. For example: radio broadcast. Compound words that are small in volume do not have side stress: gardener.
Consistent use of word stress
In the given grammatical forms, linguistic dictionaries, in non-monosyllabic headings, in texts for foreigners studying the Russian language, as well as in non-monosyllabic heading words of various reference books and dictionaries, the consistent use of the accent mark is used. This allows you to learn and read words correctly.
Selective use of word stress
The accent mark is also selectively used in ordinary texts. It is correctly used in the following cases:
- Used to prevent incorrect word recognition. For example: I’ll find out the roads later.
- It is used to set the correct stress in words that are poorly known: yukola, Fermi.
- Used to prevent mispronunciation of the word: grenadier.
Correct or incorrect placement of stress in words can significantly distort the meaning of what is said, along with incorrect use of punctuation marks.
Isolating a group of words, an individual word or a syllable in a word is called.
In Russian, the stressed element is pronounced with greater force, more clearly and for a longer duration. Depending on which element is highlighted, a distinction is made between logical and verbal stress.
| Logical stress | Word stress (or just emphasis) |
|---|---|
| This is the selection of a word or group of words that is important in terms of meaning in a given phrase. For example, in A. Akhmatova’s poem “Courage” (1942) the lines We know what's on the scales now Pronounced with logical emphasis on allied words - pronouns What, which must be highlighted by the strength of the voice, since it is they who determine the content of this entire phrase. |
This is the highlighting of a syllable in a word.
If a word consists of two or more syllables, then one of them is pronounced with greater force, with greater duration and more clearly. The syllable that is pronounced with greater force and duration is called stressed syllable. The vowel sound of a stressed syllable is called stressed vowel. The remaining syllables (and vowels) in the word are unstressed. The accent mark “ ́” is placed above the vowel of the stressed syllable: wall, field. |
Russian verbal stress (compared to other languages) has a number of features.
1. In many languages, stress is fixed, constant, that is, the stress is assigned to a specific syllable in a word.
In French, the stress always falls on the last syllable, in Polish - on the penultimate syllable, in Czech - on the first syllable.
In Russian, stress is free, that is, it can fall on any syllable.
Wed: kitchen, more beautiful, pamper.
2. Russian stress is mobile: in related words and when the same word is changed, the stress can move to another syllable.
Wed: conspiracy - agreement, start - began, orphan - orphans.
3. It is the accent that can:
distinguish one word from another;
Wed: atlas - atlas.
be an indicator of the grammatical form of a word.
Wed: hands - hands.
4. Many complex words, in addition to the main stress, can also have a side stress.
Highly gifted, evergreen.
5. During historical development, the place of stress in a word may change.
For example, in the novel by A.S. Pushkin’s “Eugene Onegin” we read: The music is already tired of thundering; and now we say - music.
6. All words of a language, when pronounced separately, have an accent. But in the flow of speech, some words, adjacent in pronunciation to the previous or subsequent one, become unstressed.
For example, in the phrase Walk on the water with me pretext with with pronoun me, as well as a preposition By with a noun water pronounced with one accent. Moreover, in the first case ( with me) the preposition becomes unstressed; in the second case ( by water) the noun becomes unstressed.
7. A large group of words in the Russian language has several accentological variants. Only some of these options in the literary language are equivalent.
Cottage cheese And cottage cheese, barge And barge, camphor And camphor, combiner And combine operator, pinch And pinch.
Typically, the options differ in their scope of use.
Thus, one of the options in a literary language can be the main one (cf.: unrestrained, girlish, busy), the other is additional, acceptable, but less desirable. (cf.: unrestrained, girlish, busy).
Other options may be non-literary (colloquial, dialect).
For example, in a literary language the pronunciation is unacceptable (!): busy, document, shop, kilometer, quarter, alcohol, youth. These are colloquial accentological options. Literary pronunciation options: engaged, document, store, kilometer, quarter, alcohol, youth.
If you have difficulty, the stress in words and forms of words can be checked using explanatory, spelling and special, orthoepic dictionaries.
Let's get acquainted with some pronunciation rules
Let's find out
Orthoepic norms
Orthoepia (from Greek. orthos– correct and epos- speech) is a set of norms of the national language that ensure the unity of its sound design, the uniformity of which helps facilitate verbal communication.
The peculiarity of orthoepic norms is that they relate to oral speech. Within the framework of orthoepic norms, pronunciation and stress norms are considered.
a) vowel sounds.
In unstressed syllables, vowel sounds undergo reduction—qualitative and quantitative changes as a result of weakening articulation. For example: s[a]sna, v[i e ]sna, h[i e ]sy, call[b]v, v[b]lykan, v[b]nut, [a]blad z[a]key l [s e]shadey.
b) consonants
Voiced consonants at the end of words and in their middle before voiceless consonants are deafened, for example: yastre[p], zap[t], tra[f]ka.
In place of voiceless consonants before voiced ones, except V, the corresponding voiced ones are pronounced, for example: [h]run, o[d]throw, v[g]hall.
In a number of cases, assimilative softening is observed, that is, consonants standing before soft consonants are pronounced softly, for example: [z"d"]es, gvo[z"d"]i, ka[z"n"], ku[z" n"]ets, pe[n"s"]iya.
Double consonants are pronounced continuously as a long consonant if the stress falls on the preceding syllable, for example: gr at[pp]a, m A[ss]a, prog A[mm]a. If the stress falls on the subsequent syllable, then double consonants are pronounced without length, for example: a[k] O rd, ba[s] e yn, gra[m] A ttika.
1. Many monosyllabic masculine nouns have an accent on the ending in the indirect singular cases, for example: bandage - bandage A, damn - damn A, tourniquet - tourniquet A, umbrella - umbrella A, whale - whale A, fang - fang A, ladle - ladle A, hook - hook A, fruit - fruit A, sickle - sickle A, flail - flail A, pole - pole A, stroke - stroke A .
2. In the accusative case of the singular, feminine nouns have stress either on the ending or on the root, for example:
A) tops - tops at, spring - spring at, gum - gum at, ash –
angry at, pickaxe – pickaxe at, nora - nora at, sheep – sheep at, dew - grew at,
sokha – sokh at, foot - stop at;
b) mountain - g O ru, board - d O sku, winter - z And mu, wall – st e Well,
side - st O ron, price - c e well, cheek e ku.
3. Some feminine nouns are pronounced with emphasis on the ending when used with prepositions V And on in circumstantial meaning: in a handful And, on the chest And, on the door And, to the cost And, to shelter And, at night And, on the stove And, in connection And, into the set And, in step And, in ten And, on a flail And, in honor And.
4. In the genitive plural case the following are pronounced:
a) with emphasis on the basis : m e ness, n O honors, etc. And past;
b) with an accent on the ending : statement e th, fortress e th, news e th, story e th, tablecloth e th, sterlet e th, Thursday e y.
Sometimes prepositions take on stress, and then the noun (or numeral) that follows it turns out to be unstressed. Most often, prepositions take over the emphasis on, for, under, by, from, without, For example:
on the:n A water, n A leg, n A hand, n A back, n A winter, n A soul, n A wall, n A head, n A side, n A shore, n A year, n A house, n A nose, n A angle, n A ear, n A day, n A night, n A two, n A three, n A six, n A ten, n A one hundred;
behind:h A water, s A leg, s A hair, h A head, s A hand, s A back, from A winter, winter A soul, s A nose, s A year, h A city, s A ear, s A ears, s A night, s A two, z A three, z A six, s A ten, s A forty, s A one hundred;
under:P O d legs, p O d hands, p O d mountain, p O d nose, p O d evening;
By:P O sea, p O field, p O forest, p O semi, p O nose, p O wow, p O two, p O three, p O stop O two, p O three;
from: And from the forest, And at home, And from the nose, And in sight;
without: b e z news, b e no use, b e 3 quarters, b e a week a year.
Wed. Also: hour O t hour, year O t year, d O nights, d O semi and etc.
5. Plural nouns with endings –s, –and, when declining, as a rule, they retain the accent based on: R e who - p e whorov, t O kari – t O Karey, etc. A ivers – dr A Iverov, sh A rfy - sh A rfov; plural nouns with endings -and I, when declining, as a rule, have an accent on the ending: bill of exchange I– bill of exchange e y, doctor A- doctor O in, passport A- passport O in, floor I- floor e y, bread A- bread O V.(See morphological norms of nouns).
6. Many short adjectives in the feminine gender have an accent on the ending: bl e den, pale A, bl e bottom, bl e bottoms; bl And close, close A, bl And tight, bl And language; m A l, small A, m A lo, m A ly; etc O st, p O full, full A, P O ok, p O lny; simple A, etc O hundred, pr O shame
7. In many verbs in the past tense in the feminine form, the emphasis is on the ending, less often on the basis:
A) took A, was A, took A, pitchfork A, heeded A, lied A, drove A, gave A, got me A,
tore A, lived A, asked A, took A, called A, lil A, made money A, hired A, began A,
drank A, swam A, Understood A, arrived A, accepted A, tore A, distributed A, reputed A,
stripped off A, slept A
and etc.;
b) b And la, br And la, d at la, w A la, cl A la, cr A la, cr s la, m s la, m I la,
P A la, rye A la, sh And la.
8. Some masculine past tense reflexive verbs have an accent on the postfix: got busy I, locked I, hired I, started I, operas I, accepted I .
9. Some perfective verbs have an accent on the ending: turn on And turn it on A T; make it easier And sew, make it easier A T; ringing And sew, call I T; moved And hey, move it I T; vodruz And sew, hoist I T.
10. Verbs to -ovate, -ovate pronounced like this:
| -edit | -ated | -ow | -ovated |
| motivate review direct arrange stabilize discuss clash date book (order in advance) privatize | motivated peer-reviewed directed arranged stabilized debated disharmonious dated privatized, | carbonate pleat corrugate give bonuses label seal book (cover with armor), and: pamper | carbonated pleated corrugated awarded marked sealed armored, and: spoiled |
11. For many passive past participles, the stress is on the stem, except for the feminine singular form, in which it is transferred to the ending, for example: vz I t – taken A– vz I then - vz I You; n A chat - started A– n A chat - n A chats; etc And given - given A- etc And given - pr And are given; etc And nyat – accepted A- etc And accepted - pr And nyats; etc O given - sold A- etc O given - pr O are given; etc O lives - will live A- etc O lively -pr O lives etc .
But from participles to – scolded, – torn, – called The feminine form has an accent based on:
h A brane, n A brane, n e ribs, And elected, pr And brane, in O brane, under O brane, times O brane, with O brane, from O brane at brane etc.;
h A drana, n A tear, about O torn, times O drana, from O drana, pr O drana, with O drana, from O drana etc.;
h A called, about O called, under O called, from O called etc.
The branch of linguistics that studies the features and functions of stress is called accentology (from Lat. accentus– stress and Greek. logos- word, teaching). In our speech, both what we say and how we say it are important. According to psychologists, our attitude towards the speaker strongly depends on the correctness of his speech, on his knowledge of language norms: correct stress in words, consistency of case endings, correct choice of singular and plural, etc.
Correct placement of stress is a necessary sign of speech culture.
There are no rules for stress in the Russian language. Each word has its own patterns; comparing stress in different words is pointless.
Difficulties in mastering Russian accent norms are associated with its peculiarities.
1. Stress in Russian is free and can fall on any syllable.
2. Russian stress can be mobile or fixed in different words. If in different forms of a word the stress falls on the same part, then it is motionless: I speak, I speak, I speak, I speak, I speak, I speak. An accent that changes its place in different forms of the same word is called movable. : run out - run out, grass - grass.
The emphasis may change over time. Not long ago it was considered the correct pronunciation metalUrgy, industry, printing. Now the normative ones are metallurgy, industry, and printing.
Some words in the Russian language show fluctuations in stress. In most dictionaries, the stress variants in the following words are recognized as equal: Augustovsky - Augustovsky, Dzhinsovy - JeansOvy, KazAki - KAZAKI, Keta - KetA, etc.
Variability and mobility are important means of distinguishing between word forms and words. For example, the words take on different semantic meanings: protein and protein, flour and flour, tongue (barrier) and tongue (sausage), glacier (cellar) and glacier, book (fasten) and book (door), busy person and busy place
You should remember words with fixed stress: bow, call, quarter, beautiful, repeat, facilitate, cake, scarf.
The place of stress depends on the origin of the word. Most words borrowed from French retain the stress on the last syllable: dispenser, jalousie, curé.
Pay attention to the stress position in the following verbs:
a) the only normative option is with emphasis at the end of the word: invigorate, invigorate, cheer up, hammer, continue(But: hollow out),sparkle, sour, lighten, tickle, powder, dust, powder, speed up, quicken, deepen, deepen, simplify, simplify, turn purple, occupy, begin, understand, accept, mischievous to pamper, pamper, pamper, indulge, bombard, costume, fill, seal, reward, equip;
b) the only normative option is with stress at the beginning and in the middle of the word: echo, silt, cork, cork, uncork, uncork, sugar up, vulgarize, force, compel, strengthen, mold, mold, scoop, exhaust (!), run out, pave, pave, block, block, compost, copy, transport;
c) equal options - with emphasis at the end of the word, in the middle and at the beginning of the word: swirl And swirl, sparkle And sparkle, oxidize And oxidize, oxidize And oxidize, rust And rust, rust - rust, rust - rust, corrugate And corrugate;
d) the main option is with stress in the middle or at the beginning of the word, but it is acceptable to stress at the end of the word: pepper - pepper, pepper - pepper, indevet - indevet.
Currently, spelling dictionaries give as acceptable pronunciation options - aggravate, aggravate, however, such pronunciation is still undesirable. It is preferable, especially in an official setting, to pronounce - aggravate, aggravate.
The pronunciation of many of these verbs serves as an indicator of a person’s speech culture. Pay special attention to the pronunciation of words: encourage, hammer, ease, deepen, begin, understand, accept, pamper, vulgarize, force, mold, scoop, exhaust.
2. Past tense forms of verbs usually retain the same stress on the same syllable as in the indefinite form:
cork - corked, speed up - speed up, put in - put in, infect - infected, seal - sealed.
At the same time, when forming the past tense forms of many one- and two-syllable verbs, a model characteristic of one- and two-syllable short adjectives follows: when forming the feminine form, the stress falls on the ending, in other cases - on the stem:
begin - began, beginning, beginning, began; tear - tore, tore, tore, tore; understand - understood, understood, understood, understood; accept - accepted, accepted, accepted, accepted.
note
Shape type started, understood, understood etc. are not only obscene, but also indicate a very low culture of the speaker!
This model is also used to form past tense forms of verbs:
take, twist, drive, tear, wait, live, borrow, call, choose, curse, lie, pour, drink, sail, tear, blow up, repute, sleep and etc.
Basically, the past tense forms of the verbs take, give, weave are formed according to the same model, but here, as with short adjectives, there are some deviations from the model:
take - took, took, took and took, took; give - gave, gave, gave and gave, gave; weave - weaved, weaved and weaved, weaved, weaved.
When forming prefixed verbs, the model is usually preserved, but the stress is often transferred from the root to the prefix ( give away - gave away, gave away, gave away, gave away), although in recent decades there has been a tendency to preserve the emphasis on the root (along with the pronunciation gave away, gave away pronunciation allowed gave away, gave away).
note
This rule does not apply to verbs start, understand, accept!
It should also be taken into account that not all one- and two-syllable verbs form past tense forms according to the indicated model. In particular, the stress in verb forms remains unchanged put, lay and derivatives from them ( laid, laid, laid, laid; steel, steel, steel, steel). Moving the accent to endings ( put) indicates a very low culture of the speaker!
Certain fluctuations are also observed in the formation of past tense forms of reflexive verbs.
Pay special attention to verbs to be born, to begin, to take up, to get into, to take up, to hire: born And was born; has begun(wrong - has begun, has begun); got it, got it(possibly outdated - took on, wrong - undertook); stuck in(possibly outdated - dug in), stuck in, stuck in(wrong - dug in, dug in); got busy(wrong - got busy), started(acceptable - accepted, incorrect - started).
3. In the present and simple future tenses, the stress tends to move to the beginning of the word:
whiten - whitens, twirl - twirls, pray - will pray, lay - will lay, be friends - be friends, deserve - will deserve, heal - will heal, ship - will ship, cook - cook.
But such movement is not always the literary norm. So, the pronunciation is considered a very serious mistake hammers instead of normative - hammers. The pronunciation is incorrect will turn on, turn off, call, infect and etc.
The following pronunciation options are standard:
invigorate - invigorates, invigorate - invigorate, drill - drills, loosen - loosen, impute - impute, excite - excite, scream - screams, muffle - muffle, muffle - muffle, ring - ringing, ringing - ringing, calling - ringing, calling back - will call back, turn on - turn on, turn on - turn on, conclude - conclude, connect - connect, reconcile - reconcile(permissible - reconciles), put up - put up(permissible - reconciles), make peace - make peace(permissible - will make peace),make peace - make peace(permissible - make peace), reconcile - will reconcile, powder - will powder, infect - will infect, become infected - will become infected, facilitate - will facilitate, seal - will seal the document with his signature, fasten - will be sealed, deepen - will deepen, diminish - will belittle, aggravate - will aggravate(since the form is acceptable, but still undesirable - aggravate, then the form – will aggravate).
The placement of stress may also depend on the meaning of the word.
For example, verb get lost in the meaning of “to make one fall, to overturn” and the colloquial “to shift responsibility, blame onto someone” in the present tense has an emphasis on the basis ( A lumberjack cuts down a tree; The defendant blames others). Homonym verb get lost– “go, move in a crowd”; “to go, fall or rise in a continuous mass, stream” ( People are pouring in; Snow is falling in flakes) - in the present tense has two standard pronunciation options: main - with emphasis on the ending ( knocks), and less desirable, but acceptable - with emphasis on the basis ( knocks down).
Stress in passive participles In participles, as in adjectives, stress in short forms can cause difficulty. Here you need to remember the following rule: if in the full form the emphasis falls on the suffix, then the same is the emphasis in the short form of the masculine gender. In the feminine and neuter gender and in the plural, the emphasis moves to the ending: introduced - introduced, introduced, introduced, introduced; obstructed – obstructed, obstructed, obstructed, obstructed. In other short passive participles, the stress may fall on both the stem and the ending: started - started, started, started, started; accepted - accepted, accepted, accepted, accepted.
Stress in individual grammatical forms
The mobility of the Russian accent, i.e. its transfer from one syllable to another in various grammatical forms of a single phonetic word causes a number of difficulties in the pronunciation of these forms.
1. Shifting the emphasis to prepositions on, for, under, by, from, without possible if the sentence after the noun does not have words explaining it:
1) in combination with a preposition behind
"on the other side, behind" For example: leave foŕ river, beyond́ mountain; lay down foŕ cheek, foŕ ear; put your hands behind́ back, behind́ head;
"during" do foŕ year, foŕ day, foŕ night, foŕ winter; pay foŕ year, foŕ day and so on.;
2) in combination with a preposition on(with accusative case) meaning:
“in the direction of, on top of smth,” For example: fall (sit, lie down) oń floor, climb oń mountain, something got oń hand, oń nose, put the load oń back, put something oń head, oń legs, oń hands;
« indicating the point of contact with the support", For example: lie down oń back, fall oń back, oń hands oń head, stand oń legs, oń hands oń head;
"based on the specified period"(with time units), for example: stock up (stretch, enough) foŕ year, foŕ day, oń night, oń winter, take out a loan foŕ year and so on.;
“indication of the measure of difference”, For example: oń a year oldeŕ the day before, oń head up and so on.;
3) in combination with a preposition By(with dative case) – with the meaning of this preposition "on the surface, within"(about movement), for example: walk oń gender, bý field, bý yard, walk around́ forest, fly through́ sky, float acrosś sea, scatter oveŕ gender, bý forest.
With other meanings of these prepositions, stress transfer may not occur, for example:
A) take something for granted́ ru, for ré ku, for but́ gu, for zí mu, he is appreciated for hiś catch, for rú ki, reward for gó I'm afraid for yoú los, for the sake of́ catch, for but́ gi;
b) pay attention to rú ki, na but́ gi, na but́ from, tó l, on dé no, despite but́ who, whý mu, tax on zé mlu;
V) longing for mó ryu, nó boo, judge by the yard́ , field́ su, everyone got oné liu.
Transfer of stress usually does not occur if in a phrase the noun is followed by a word or words that explain it (subordinate to it or connected with it by a coordinating connection), for example:
A) for ré ku Ural, for th́ d and two months, per yeaŕ d hard work, for dé not on duty, holding on to his hand́ ku comrade, took hold of the shouldeŕ father's chi;
b) on gó ru Yaman-Tau, loaded the load onto the bacḱ Well, the porter, put his hat oń catching a neighbor, older by th́ d and two months;
V) around the yard́ hotels, according to a dreaḿ gu and ice of the Gulf of Finland, according to mó Ryu Laptev.
For one- and two-syllable short adjectives, the most typical model is the following: the ending is stressed only in the feminine form, in other forms the stress falls on the stem:
lively - striker, striker, striker, striker; right - right, right, right, right.
According to this model, short forms of adjectives are formed:
lively, flexible, smooth, naked, loud, cheap, wild, expensive, pathetic, hot, hard, lively, liquid, sonorous, brief, accurate, young, powerful, naked, common (belonging to all), right (fair; containing the truth) ), timid, gray, nice, sweet, blind, strange, damp, well-fed, whole, sensitive, young, nimble, etc.
Please note that forms like are right Not only are they not normative, but they also indicate a person’s low speech culture!
However, short forms are very strongly influenced by the general tendency to shift the emphasis to the ending of the adjective. This process most actively involves plural forms. Thus, in the last ten to fifteen years, a whole group of short adjectives that obeyed the indicated model, along with the main option - stress based on ( stupid), the form with a stressed ending ( stupid):
cheerful, stupid, deaf, proud (arrogant), bitter, rough, sour, oblique, strong, crooked, dexterous, small, dead(inanimate), soft, bad, rare, sharp, weak, old, strict, dry, quiet, bright and etc.
Please note that although forms with stressed endings (cheerful) are given by dictionaries as acceptable, they are still undesirable, since they indicate a lower speech culture of a person!
Options with an accent on the ending and on the base in the plural form are now perceived as equal ( poor And poor) for a number of adjectives:
poor, close, pale, important, faithful, tasty, wet, harmful, hungry, sad, dirty, thick, long, kind, friendly, greedy, yellow, fat, green, short, round, large, cool, cute, wet, gloomy, tender, low, new, dense, full (exhaustive), strong, straight, empty, even, gray-haired, modest, stingy, boring, complex, bold, salty, juicy, ripe, scary, hard, close, thick, thin, precise, difficult, stupid, cold, brave, thin, honest, clean, narrow, clear.
Finally, for some short adjectives in the plural, the stressed form may become the main normative variant ( simple), whereas the accented form based on ( simple) is recorded as valid and/or obsolete, obsolete, for example: prominent(visible, discernible), proud(meaning feeling proud), necessary, simple, strong.
The process of transferring stress from the stem to the ending can extend to forms not only of the plural, but also of the singular, especially the neuter. In speech, non-normative (!) forms are quite frequent:
pale, important, visible, dirty, long etc. Such pronunciation is unacceptable in literary speech!
At the same time, for some adjectives, the stressed ending in the neuter gender becomes either an equal option along with the unstressed one, or the main or only normative option. As a rule, these adjectives also have a stressed ending in the plural:
white – white, white, white And white, white And white; sick - sick, sick, sick, sick; great - great, great, great, great; tall - tall, high, high(permissible - high), high And tall; deep - deep, deep, deep (permissible - deep), deep And deep; hot - hot, hot, hot, hot; distant - far, far, far(permissible - far), far away And far away; red - red, red, red and red, red and red; small - small, small, little, small; dead(devoid of vitality, sterile) – dead, dead, dead(permissible - dead), dead(permissible - dead); general(not specific, schematic) – generally, generally, generally, generally(permissible - general); sharp - sharp sharp), sharp, sharp(permissible in the meaning of “not stupid” - acutely), sharp(permissible in the meaning of “not stupid” - sharp); motley – motley, motley, motley And motley, motley And variegated; equal – equal, equal, equal, equal; fresh - fresh, fresh, fresh, fresh And fresh; light - light, light, light, light; warm - warm, warm, warm, warm; heavy - heavy, heavy, heavy, heavy; smart - smart, smart, smart, smart; cunning - cunning, cunning, cunning(permissible - cunningly), cunning(permissible - tricks); black – black, black, black, black; wide – wide, wide, widely(permissible - wide), wide And wide.
note
Not all one- and two-syllable short adjectives have movable stress! Thus, all forms of short adjectives retain the emphasis on the base: greedy (greedy, greedy, greedy, greedy), eternal, absurd, bilious, sultry, inert, peaceful, dangerous, controversial, urgent, convenient, predatory.
Some short adjectives may have fluctuations in the feminine form, that is, the stress in all forms remains on the stem, but in the feminine form (as with adjectives like striker, right) the coexistence of two literary variants is possible - with a stressed and an unstressed ending:
stormy - stormy, stormy And burna, stormo, burna; imperious – powerful, imperious And powerful, powerful, powerful; fashionable - fashionable, fashionable And fashionable, fashionable, fashionable.
For the formation of forms compare. degrees using morphs - her And - to her limitations of an accentological nature are significant. At adj. compare with a monosyllabic stem form. degrees tend to place emphasis on - her And - to her. At adj. with fixed stress on the base in full and short forms (see § 1355) in the form compare. degree, the stress can be both on the basis and - under the influence of the named tendency - on the suffix. In the latter case, the form will compare. degree is contrasted in stress with all other forms of the adjective. This makes it difficult to use forms to compare. degrees at adj. with a fixed stress on a monosyllabic basis and contributes to its replacement with a descriptive phrase with more: more intelligible, more connected(instead of more clearly, more coherent).
The fluctuation of stress in the forms will compare. degree also occurs in adj. with prefix Not-, motivated by adjectives with movable stress: normal forms with stress on the root: incorrect, more uneven, more silently. For variant stress forms, see
15Grammatical norms of the modern Russian language
language norm error grammatical
The grammatical norms of the modern Russian language can be divided into three categories:
word-forming;
morphological;
syntactic.
There are two big problems with word formation:
) compliance with the norms or rules of word formation;
) the choice of a particular word, which contains evaluative morphemes, in accordance with a specific communication situation.
The first problem relates to the field of speech culture, the second is more related to stylistics.
Morphological norms determine the correct formation and use of word forms. For example, the normative form of the genitive plural is a lot of stockings, boots, but socks, you can’t say places, business, you shouldn’t change indeclinable nouns: in the new palta, incorrect: more better (simply - better) or the smartest (the smartest or the smartest) .
Morphological norms apply to all parts of speech of the Russian language. The gender of nouns is a permanent feature, so violations of grammatical norms are often associated precisely with the incorrect use of nouns in a certain gender. Determining the gender of a noun is not difficult; it is enough to choose the correct pronoun for it (he, she, it).
There are also morphological norms for the declension of nouns, where the variants of case endings are clearly defined. The main grammatical rules for variant case endings are as follows:
1) standard endings named after. p.m. h. noun m.r. are - s (-s), non-standard (- (-s), - e), for example: moles, horses, snow, chairs.
2) in the form of genus. n. inanimate by him. noun m.r. in units h. have the ending - y (-yu), which is most often found in words with a real meaning and in collective nouns meaning quantity from a part of the whole, for example: pour sand / sand.
) the form na - y firmly holds in phraseological combinations, for example: face to face.
) diminutive forms with an accent on the ending are used mainly with the form - y, for example: cognac, cottage cheese.
) zero ending in the names of units of measurement (watt, erg); names of vegetables, fruits, food, measured by masses (eggplant, tangerine, pomegranate); names of persons by nationality (Avar, Ossetian, Gypsy); names of persons according to military units (hussar, midshipman); names of paired items or items consisting of several parts (felt boots, clips, stockings); Some nouns have only plural forms. h. (splash, timpani, cosmos).
) expressed zero ending, for example: uncles, aunts, mangers, etc.
) other cases.
The norms for variant endings of nouns in the nominative plural form have been determined, for example: constructor-constructors, front-fronts, anchor-anchors.
There are norms for phraseological combination and combination with forms on - y in the prepositional case, for example: there is not enough gunpowder, hour by hour, out of harmony with the heart, at every step.
The grammatical norms for the endings of masculine nouns with a hard consonant in the genitive plural are determined, for example: Bermuda-Bermuda, cuffs-cuffs, Greeks-Greeks, Evenki-Evenki.
A certain group of nouns used with certain grammatical norms consists of nouns with the noun endings m.r., zh.r., cf. R. with a base on a soft consonant, Ж, or a sibilant consonant in the plural genitive case. h., for example: harp-harp, gossip-gossip, box-box, gear-gear.
There are norms for the declension of proper nouns: surnames and geographical names, in particular the declension of surnames. For example, foreign language and Russian surnames ending in a consonant are declined if they refer to men and not declined if they refer to women: Oleg Finkel and Maria Finkel. The same group of grammatical norms includes the norms of declension of geographical names. For example, geographical names like Sheremetyevo (in Sheremetyevo), Komarovo (Komarovo) normally have inflected and indeclinable variants, but are not inflected if they are found with generic names (from the port of Vanino) or the names are enclosed in quotation marks (for example, near the Golovlevo farm )
There are grammatical rules for the use of adjectives. The full form of the adjective most often indicates a permanent attribute of the object, and the short form - a temporary one. For example: she is educated and she is educated. The short form expresses the attribute more categorically than the full form: he is smart - he is smart.
The grammatical norms for declension of numerals have also been determined. For example, when declining complex numerals denoting hundreds and tens and ending in - hundred or - ten in the nominative case, each part is declined as a simple numeral (fifty, seventy). There are also norms for the use of collective nouns. For example, in cases of their use with personal pronouns: there are two of us, there were five of them.
There are also grammatical rules for the formation of personal forms of verbs. For example, the verbs have a vigil, protect, convince, etc. the 1 liter form is not formed. units h. Some verbs (for example, to go) do not form an imperative form. Verbs must agree with nouns in number. When using a verb, you need to pay attention to verb control. Certain difficulties arise when forming the past tense forms of some verbs. So, for example, the verbs na - nut in the indicated form have grammatical variants: delved - delved, dried-dry. However, recently there has been a tendency to lose the suffix - y.
The grammatical norms for the formation of participles contain, for example, the norm that passive past participles are not formed from verbs ending in - (a) no: push, sadanut from the verbs kiss, orphan, etc.
The same applies to the rules on the formation of gerunds. Participles are not formed, for example, from non-prefixive imperfective verbs ending in - nut: dry, freeze, hang, stick, etc. The action expressed by the gerund must refer to the same person (object) to which the action expressed by the predicate verb refers.
Syntactic norms regulate the formation of phrases and sentences, for example, during management: you can’t talk shows about ... (shows what?), confidence in victory (in victory), the limit of patience has come (patience), pay for the journey (pay for what ?); After watching this film, I became sad (After watching this film, I became sad. Or: I became sad after watching this film).
Knowledge of grammatical norms and rules for constructing phrases and sentences and careful attention to one’s own speech culture allows one to avoid syntactic errors in speech. A phrase is a combination of two or more words of significant parts of speech, in which there is a main (s) and dependent (s) word (s). Collocations are not a means of communication. They form the basis of a sentence, which serves as a means of communication. A sentence is specifically intended to express a message, motive or question.
Thus, we have examined the main groups of grammatical norms of the modern Russian language. Ignorance of grammatical norms leads to the fact that the incorrect use of certain speech patterns violates the grammatical structure of the language. Let's consider the most common cases of errors associated with violation of grammatical norms of the Russian language.
Typical mistakes in violating grammatical norms of the Russian language
Deviation from the grammatical norms of the Russian language is a grammatical error. Grammatical errors include the following types:
derivational:
Violation of the norms of word formation of various parts of speech
morphological:
Violation of the norms of declension and conjugation of words
syntactic:
·violation of approval norms;
·violation of norms for constructing sentences of various structures;
Violation of management standards.
The most common word-formation errors, which often affect the spelling of a word:
1) incorrect choice of prefix (under-scratch instead of in-scratch);
2) incorrect choice of suffix (deviation-st-o instead of deviation - e);
) errors in the root of the word (pri-urach-iva-t instead of pri-ur-iva-t).
The result of a violation of word-formation norms is artificially created words formed with a violation of the word-formation structure of words in the Russian language. As a rule, they are associated with the formation of abstract nouns using the suffixes - awn, - stv (o), etc.
In addition, there are errors that are associated with the norms of using certain parts of the word (morphemes) within a particular style of speech. Such errors are classified as stylistic, not speech.
Errors in determining the gender of nouns are mainly associated with cases of non-compliance with grammatical norms in the following aspects:
1) words imply fluctuations in gender - the group of such nouns is small and requires memorization, for example, banknotes m.r. and banknote zh.r., cuff m.r. and cuff f.r., forks m.r. and fork zh.r., psalter zh. and m.r. simultaneously.
2) nouns refer to words of a general gender, for example: real ignoramus (g.r.) and real ignoramus (m.r.).
) indeclinable inanimate nouns ending in - o, - e, as a rule, belong to the neuter gender, for example: meringue (s.r.), domino (s.r.), cafe (s.r.).
) indeclinable inanimate nouns ending in other vowels, presuppose the selection of a generic pair, by which the gender affiliation is established, for example: salami - sausage (g.r.), ivashi - herring (g.r.).
) indeclinable animate nouns indicating representatives of the animal world, suggest the establishment of gender depending on gender, for example: cunning chimpanzee - a huge chimpanzee, graceful flamingo - pink flamingo.
) if an abbreviation can be inflected, then its gender is determined by grammatical criteria, for example: our university (m.r.) held an open day.
) some words do not have a pair denoting a masculine person. If necessary, descriptive phrases can be formed (ballet dancer, dancer), for example: manicurist, cook, seamstress.
) other cases.
A violation of the norm for using the comparative degree of adjectives is the combination of simple and complex forms in one construction, for example: more beautiful instead of more beautiful and more beautiful. It is also considered an error to mix the superlative degree of adjectives with the pronouns most and the adverbs most, least, for example: the most successful solution to the problem instead of the most successful solution to the problem.
Errors often arise in the use of certain numerals. For example, a combination like fifty-one days (51 days) is inappropriate; it would be more correct to say 51 days. Or when using the word day, the form one and a half days should be used.
When using personal pronouns in speech, difficulties arise in choosing the form of the personal pronoun in the genitive case: her or her, theirs or theirs. Also, when using pronouns, speech errors often occur, which are associated with:
violations when correlating a pronoun with a person or object expressed by a noun, for example: He forbade me to bring my things (clarification is necessary: he forbade me to bring his things or things belonging to me);
unmotivated duplication of the same member of a sentence, for example: The heroine of the play, she strived for a better life.
Using the demonstrative personal pronoun 3 l. pl. h and unit h. (he, she, it, they), as well as the relative pronoun which, you need to keep track of which noun they replace.
The incorrect choice of using prepositions in speech violates the norms of syntactic control. The incorrect choice of the prepositions in - or on - affects the meaning of the statement, although both prepositions have a common meaning of the direction of movement of the location: in the sea (in the depths of the sea) and on the sea (on the surface of the sea). Also in speech, there are often errors in the use of prepositions under- and against. In accordance with morphological norms, the preposition under- cannot be used in combination with nouns that have an abstract meaning (for example, to allocate funds for festive events).
There are syntactic errors at the level of a phrase or sentence, for example, violations in the coordination of various words (Katerina’s husband was a weak-willed man who completely obeyed his mother (correctly obeyed)).
Various speech errors are associated with the construction of simple and complex sentences of different structures. For example, errors in constructing sentences with homogeneous members (Grinev was honest, truthful, but sometimes gullible (use of different case forms of homogeneous predicates, correctly - gullible)). There are also errors in the construction of sentences with isolated phrases (After not graduating from school, the boy had to look for a job (inconsistency of the adverbial phrase, correct: Without graduating from school, the boy began to look for work)). This should also include errors in the use of direct and indirect speech (Yuri said that I would be an astronaut (correctly: Yuri said that he would be an astronaut)).
Thus, knowledge of common word-formation, morphological and syntactic errors in the use of grammatical norms allows you to avoid them and thereby improves a person’s speech culture.
A noun is a part of speech that designates an object (substance) and expresses this meaning in the inflectional categories of number and case and in the non-inflectional category of gender.
A noun names objects in the broad sense of the word; these are the names of things ( table, wall, window, scissors, sled), persons ( child, girl, young man, woman, Human), substances ( cereal,torment A, sugar, cream), living beings and organisms ( cat, dog, crow, woodpecker, snake, perch, pike; bacterium, virus, microbe), facts, events, phenomena ( fire, play, conversation, holidays,sadness, fear), as well as those named as independent independent substances of non-processual and procedural features - qualities, properties, actions, procedurally represented states ( kindness, stupidity, blue, run, solution, crush).
§ 1122. Nouns are divided into the following lexical and grammatical categories: nouns 1) proper and common nouns; 2) collective; 3) real; 4) concrete and abstract; 5) animate and inanimate. These categories overlap: for example, proper names include the names of both animate and inanimate objects; real nouns denoting a homogeneous mass of a substance can have a collective meaning ( cranberry, grape, sugar); Concrete nouns combine in their composition all those words - animate and inanimate - that name the objects being counted. At the same time, the words of each of the identified lexico-grammatical categories have common morphological, and in some cases, word-formation characteristics.
NOUN
Based on the naming of an object as an individual or as a representative of a whole class, all nouns are divided into proper and common nouns. Proper nouns (or proper names) are words that name individual objects included in the class of homogeneous ones, but do not themselves carry any special indication of this class. Common nouns (or common nouns) are words that name an object by its belonging to a particular class; accordingly, they designate an object as a carrier of characteristics characteristic of objects of a given class.
Note. This distinction is certainly true for contrasting individual words: Peter – boy, Moscow – city, Earth – planet, Bug – dog. However, the series of proper names belonging to the language, assigned or assigned to objects of the same class, already in itself signals what this class is and, therefore, what common nouns stand behind these proper names: Peter, Vania, Grisha, Kolya,Vitya, Misha... – proper names assigned to men and boys; Moscow, Leningrad, Kaluga, Yaroslavl, Astrakhan... – proper names assigned to cities; Bug, Ball, Bobik, Rex, Jack... – proper names assigned to dogs.
Gender of indeclinable nouns
1. Words denoting inanimate objects. Indeclinable nouns of foreign origin, denoting inanimate objects, mostly belong to the neuter gender, for example: railwaydepot, interestinginterview, routeTaxi, politicalstatus quo, healingaloe, woolmuffler.
The rule has a number of exceptions related to the influence of various analogies (Russian synonym, grammatical gender of a word denoting a generic concept, etc.).
Thus, the following words belong to the masculine gender: ha(cf.: oneha, word influence hectare), coffee(the influence of the masculine gender of this word in the French language, from which it was borrowed, and also in connection with this the existence of previous forms coffee, coffee), poppieś (thicket), penalty(the influence of the Russian synonymous combination “eleven-meter penalty kick”), sirocco, tornado(generic concept “wind”), Suluguni(generic concept “cheese”), shimmy(generic concept of “dance”), ecu(an old French coin; the influence of the source language) and some others. Under the influence of the word-concept “language” the words are classified as masculine Bengali, Pashto, Suomi, Urdu, Hindi etc.
Feminine words include: Avenue(Russian synonym Street), take(generic concept “pear”), take it(generic concept of “disease”), kohlrabi("cabbage"), salami(“sausage”) and some others.
Finally, some words are used in two genders, for example: auto(middle and male, under the influence of the word automobile), Afghani(middle and female), bibabó (middle and male, cf.: smallbibabó), brandy(middle and men, cf.: strongbrandy), mocha(middle and male, analogy with the use of the word coffee), narghilé (middle and male, a close concept of “hookah”), pas de deux And pas de trois(middle and male, generic concept “dance”), pica(middle and male, generic concept “font”), Esperanto(middle and male, influence of the word language, see above); There are words that are simultaneously used in one of the genders and the plural, for example, blinds(middle and plural; cf.: beautifulblinds).
2. Substantivalized words. Substantivized indeclinable words belong to the neuter gender, for example: polite"Hello", everlasting"Yes", loud"hooray", is ourTomorrow, sharp"Don't want".
3. Words denoting persons. Indeclinable nouns denoting persons are classified as masculine or feminine depending on their meaning, i.e. correlation with the real gender of the designated person, for example:
1) masculine: rentier, military attaché, coolie, Duce, curé, referee, maestro, Nazi, quasimodo, Yankee, chevalier, bullfighter, impresario, caballero, pierrot;
2) feminine: Fraulein, ingénue, travesty, miss, lady, nude, lady, madam, milady;
3) bigeneric: counterpart(cf.: mycounterpartturned out to be an interesting conversationalist– mycounterpartturned out to be an interesting conversationalist), protégé(cf.: ourprotégémet all expectations – ourprotégémet all expectations); incognita(cf.: mysteriousincognitasuddenly disappeared - mysteriousincognitasuddenly disappeared); hippie(cf.: younghippiesang - younghippiesang);
4) neuter: jury(in a collective sense; cf.: jurydecided).
4. Words denoting animals, birds, etc., indeclinable nouns denoting animate objects (except persons, see above) belong to the masculine gender, for example: zebu, pony, chimpanzee, cockatoo, kangaroo, flamingo, macao, rhea, koala, gray. In this case, the male gender is used regardless of the gender of the animal. However, if the context indicates a female, then the corresponding words are used in the feminine form, for example: kangaroo carriedin a kangaroo's pouch,chimpanzee fedcub.
Words are bigender collie, grizzly(female and male).
5. Geographical names. The gender of indeclinable nouns denoting geographical proper names (names of cities, rivers, lakes, islands, mountains, etc.) is determined by the grammatical gender of the common noun, which acts as a generic concept (i.e. by the gender of the words city, river, lake, etc.), for example: solarTbilisi(city), wideMississippi(river), full-flowingErie(lake), difficult to reachJungfrau(mountain), picturesqueCapri(island).
Deviations from the rule are explained by the influence of analogy, the use of a word in a different meaning, the tendency to attribute foreign indeclinable words to the neuter gender. -O etc., for example: Five-headedBeshtau(influence of the name of the neighboring mountain Mashuk), NorthernBorneo(the influence of the final O), SecondBaku(the name of the place of oil production, not the city). NewSochi(false analogy with words in plural form like Velikie Luki).
Sometimes the same word is used in different generic forms depending on what concept is meant. Wed: in times of crisisSomaliasuffered from food shortages. – Somaliaaccepted humanitarian aid with gratitude(in the first case, the concept of “state” is meant, in the second - “country”).
6. Names of media. The grammatical gender of indeclinable names of mass media is also determined by the generic name, for example: BBCreported(British Broadcasting Corporation); liberal"News Chronicle". Often there is an erroneous agreement: BBC reported(as an indeclinable neuter noun), "Times" published...(the name with the final consonant is classified as masculine), "Burda fashionable" demonstratednew summer clothing collection(name of the magazine).
7. Abbreviations. Abbreviations formed by combining the initial letters of those words that make up the full name determine their grammatical gender by the gender of the leading word of the compound name, for example: Moscow State University (Moscow Stateuniversity) celebratedits bicentenary; ATS(automatic telephonestation) increasednumber of subscribers. Sometimes other agreement is allowed, for example: ITAR-TASSreported...(an abbreviation with a final consonant is classified as masculine).
The same provision also applies to compound words (read by initial sounds or including syllabic formations), if these words are not inflected, for example: localgeneral store (rural consumersociety).
How to determine the gender of compound words (abbreviations)?
The gender of abbreviations is usually determined by the reference word in the decoding of the abbreviation or by the generic word: NATO(alliance - m.r.) decided, Moscow State University(university - m.r.) accepted new students, CIS(commonwealth - s.r.) took the initiative, UNESCO(organization - zh.r.) declared 2011 the year of forests.
In some cases, the gender of a noun is established by tradition, so a dictionary check is required: university(the key word is establishment, but the gender is masculine), Ministry of Foreign Affairs(the key word is ministry, but the gender is masculine), TASS(the key word is agency, but the gender is masculine).
There are three groups of common nouns:
1. Declined common nouns with the ending -а (-я), by meaning they are a qualitative characteristic of a person:
suffixal
has a sweet tooth
upstart
capricious
affixless
white-handed
couch potato
sweet tooth
poor fellow
2. General nouns that name the diminutive names of boys and girls: Sasha, Zhenya, Valya. 3. Indeclinable surnames of foreign origin ending in a vowel: Rabelais, Dumas, Donezetti, Verdi, as well as surnames of Slavic origin ending in vowels and consonants: Shevchenko, Durnovo, Chernykh. _____________ Masculine nouns that name persons by occupation, position or profession (doctor, engineer, director) do not belong to the general gender:
new doctor
new doctor
Agreement between a noun and a feminine adjective
If the combination with the numeral includes the noun wives. r., then both forms of the adjective are normal - and im. and family P.: two young women - two young women, which-tofour girls - what-That four girls, both yard dogs - both courtyards dogs, four big huts - four large huts, two women's hands - two women's hands; On account at our team four gold And three silver medals(gas.).
Rules for setting stress in words included in the orthoepic minimum.
1. In feminine past tense verbs, the stress, as a rule, falls on the ending A:
took, took, took, took, poured in, burst in, took, recreated, drove, chased, got, got, waited, waited, occupied, locked, locked, called, lied, poured, poured, lied, tore As, called As, poured, narwala, began, doused, hugged, overtook, tore, departed, gave, recalled, responded, poured, called, watered, understood, arrived, tore, removed, created, tore, removed.
Note:
- The exception is feminine past tense verbs with the prefix YOU-, which draws the emphasis:
Poured, called; - for the verbs put, sneak, send, send, send, the emphasis in the feminine form of the past tense does NOT fall on the ending A, but remains on the basis:
put, sneaked, sent, sent, sent.
2. In short passive feminine past participles, the emphasis falls on the ending A:
busy, locked, populated, acquired, poured, encouraged, removed, created
3. In verbs ending in -IT. during conjugation, the emphasis falls on the ending -ИШ, -IT, -IM, -ITE, -AT, -YAT:
turn on - turn on, turn on, turn on, turn on, turn on;
hand over - hand over, hand over, hand over, hand over, hand over;
get through - get through, get through, get through, get through, get through;
to bleed - the wound bleeds;
exclude - exclude, exclude, exclude, exclude, exclude;
call - call, call, call, call, call;
allocate - allocate, allocate, allocate, allocate, allocate;
to heel - the wind will tilt the ship;
litter - litter, litter, litter, litter, litter;
call - call, call, call, call, call;
make it easier - make it easier, make it easier, make it easier, make it easier, make it easier;
encourage - encourage, encourage, encourage, encourage, encourage;
be encouraged - you will be encouraged;
borrow - borrow, borrow, borrow, borrow, borrow;
surround - surround, surround, surround, surround, surround;
repeat - repeat, repeat, repeat, repeat, repeat;
call back - call back, call back, call back, call back, call back;
call - call, call, call, call, call;
drill - drill, drill, drill, drill, drill;
strengthen - strengthen, strengthen, strengthen, strengthen, strengthen;
to ache - the heart aches.
Note:
In the following verbs ending in -IT, the stress does NOT fall on the ending when conjugated:
vulgarize (= make vulgar) - they will vulgarize;
inquire - you will inquire.
4. In verbs formed from adjectives, the stress most often falls on -IT:
fast - speed up;
acute - aggravate;
light - make it easier;
cheerful - encourage;
deep - deepen.
Note: The verb does not obey this pattern Angry, formed from the adjective “ wicked».
5. In active past participles with the suffix -ВШ- the stress falls on the vowel letter that appears in the word before this suffix:
having acquired, begun, understood, lived.
6. In passive past participles formed from the verbs bend, bend, bend, the emphasis falls on the prefix:
bent, curved, bent.
7. Past participles, formed using the always stressed suffix -ЁНН-, in the short form of the masculine gender retain this stress, and in the short form of participles with the suffix -ЁНН- in the feminine and neuter gender the emphasis shifts to the ending:
included - enabled - enabled - enabled
delivered - delivered - delivered - delivered
populated - populated - populated - populated
endowed - endowed - endowed - endowed
brought down - brought down - brought down - brought down
encouraged - encouraged - encouraged
aggravated - aggravated - aggravated - aggravated
disabled - disabled - disabled - disabled
repeated - repeated - repeated - repeated
divided - divided - divided - divided
tamed - tamed - tamed - tamed
8. On the root BAL - in words with the meaning “to behave badly”, “to fulfill any whims”, “to be overly pampered and capricious” the emphasis does NOT fall:
pampered, pampered, pampered, pampered, pampered
9. In gerunds with suffixes -ВШ-. -VSHI- the emphasis falls on the vowel letter that comes before these suffixes in the word:
starting, giving, raising, understanding, arriving, beginning.
Note:
Participles often have stress on the same syllable as the indefinite form of the corresponding verb:
set - set,
pour - gulf,
take up - take up,
start - starting,
raise - raising,
to live - having lived,
put - put,
understand - having understood,
betray - betray,
undertake - having undertaken,
arrive - having arrived,
accept - having accepted,
sell - sold,
drink away - drink away,
create - create.
Remember: exhaust - having exhausted (CANNOT: exhausted).
10. In nouns of foreign origin (most often French), the stress falls on the last syllable:
hyphen, dispensary, heretic, blinds, catalog, quarter, obituary, parter, expert.
11. The place of stress in a verbal noun usually coincides with the place of stress in the original verb from which it is formed:
religion (in this verbal noun the same stress is retained as in the original verb from which it is formed: (faith) confess);
provision (in this verbal noun the same stress is retained as in the original verb from which it is formed: to provide);
gas pipeline, garbage pipeline, oil pipeline (= something that carries gas, garbage, oil).
12. In some nouns the stress is fixed and falls on the ROOT in ALL CASES:
AIRPORT - airports (plural names)
bow - bows - with bows
accountant - accountants (n. plural)
X - X - with X
CRANE - taps
lecturer - lecturers - lecturers
locality - localities
cake - cakes - with cake - cakes
scarf - scarves - no scarf
13. In the following adjectives, the stress is the same as in the original noun from which the adjective is derived:
plum - plum
kitchen - kitchen
14. When forming a simple form of comparative or superlative degree from the name of the adjective “beautiful”, the stress remains unchanged and falls on the vowel letter AND of the base:
beautiful - more beautiful - most beautiful
15. In the following adverbs, the emphasis falls on the prefix DO:
to the top, to the bottom, to the dryness
Note: This rule does not apply to the placement of stress in adverbs d It is impossible, white-hot, red-hot.
16. In the following adverbs, the emphasis falls on the prefix FOR:
in advance = in advance
after dark
after dark
Note: This rule does not apply to the placement of stress in an adverb. envious(it retains the same stress as in the original verb from which it is formed: envy).