Every person has an abstract concept of electric current. For an electrical appliance, the power source is something like the air source for any breathing organism. But these comparisons limit the understanding of the nature of the phenomenon, and only specialists understand the essence more deeply.
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In the school curriculum, everyone takes a physics course, which describes the basic concepts and laws of electricity. The dry, scientific approach is not of interest to children, so most adults have no idea what electric current is, why it occurs, what its unit of measurement is, or how anything can move through stationary metal wires. and even make electrical appliances work.
In simple words about electric current
The standard definition from a school physics textbook succinctly describes the phenomenon of electric current. But to be honest, you can fully understand this if you study the subject much more deeply. After all, the information is presented in a different language - scientific. It is much easier to understand the nature of a physical phenomenon if you describe everything in familiar language, understandable to any person. For example, current in metal.
We should start with the fact that everything that we consider solid and motionless is so only in our imagination. A piece of metal lying on the ground is a monolithic motionless body in human understanding. For an analogy, let’s imagine our planet in space, looking at it from the surface of Mars. The earth seems like a complete, motionless body. If you approach its surface, it will become obvious that this is not a monolithic piece of matter, but a constant movement: water, gases, living beings, lithospheric plates - all this moves non-stop, although this is not visible from distant space.
Let's return to our piece of metal lying on the ground. It is motionless because we look at it from the outside as a monolithic object. At the atomic level, it consists of constantly moving tiny elements. They are different, but among all, we are interested in electrons, which create an electromagnetic field in metals, generating that same current. The word “current” must be taken literally, because when elements with an electric charge move, that is, “flow,” from one charged object to another, then “electric current” occurs.
Having understood the basic concepts, we can derive a general definition:
Electric current is a flow of charged particles moving from a body with a higher charge to a body with a lower charge.
To understand the essence even more precisely, you need to delve into the details and get answers to several basic questions.
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Answers to the main questions about electric current
After formulating the definition, several logical questions arise.
- What makes current “flow”, that is, move?
- If the smallest elements of metal are constantly moving, then why does it not deform?
- If something flows from one object to another, does the mass of these objects change?
The answer to the first question is simple. Just as water flows from a high point to a low point, so electrons will flow from a body with a high charge to a body with a low one, obeying the laws of physics. And “charge” (or potential) is the number of electrons in a body, and the more there are, the higher the charge. If a contact is made between two bodies with different charges, electrons will flow from the more charged body to the less charged one. This will create a current that will end when the charges of the two contacting bodies are equal.
To understand why a wire does not change structure, despite the fact that there is constant movement in it, you need to imagine it in the form of a large house in which people live. The size of the house will not change depending on how many people enter and leave it, or move around inside it. A person in this case is an analogue of an electron in metal - he moves freely and does not have much mass compared to the whole building.
If electrons move from one body to another, why does the mass of the bodies not change? The fact is that the weight of an electron is so small that even if all the electrons are removed from the body, its mass will not change.
What is the unit of current?
- Current strength.
- Voltage.
- Resistance.
If we try to describe the concept of current in simple terms, it is best to imagine the flow of cars passing through a tunnel. Cars are electrons and the tunnel is a wire. The more cars pass through the cross-section of the tunnel at one point in time, the greater the current strength, which is measured by a device called an “ammeter” in Amperes (A), and in formulas is denoted by the letter (I).
Voltage is a relative quantity that expresses the difference in the charges of bodies between which current flows. If one object has a very high charge and another very low, then there will be a high voltage between them, which is measured using a device called a voltmeter and a unit called Volt (V). Identified in formulas by the letter (U).
Resistance characterizes the ability of a conductor, conventionally a copper wire, to pass a certain amount of current, that is, electrons, through itself. A resistive conductor generates heat by expending some of the energy of the current passing through it, thereby reducing its strength. Resistance is calculated in Ohms (Ohm), and the letter (R) is used in formulas.
Formulas for calculating current characteristics
Using three physical quantities, current characteristics can be calculated using Ohm's Law. It is expressed by the formula:
Where I is the current strength, U is the voltage on the circuit section, R is the resistance.
From the formula we see that the current is calculated by dividing the voltage by the resistance. Hence we have the formulation of the law:
The current strength is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance of the conductor.
From this formula, you can mathematically calculate its other components.
Resistance:
Voltage:
It is important to note that the formula is only valid for a specific section of the chain. For a complete, closed circuit, as well as other special cases, there are other Ohm's laws.
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The effect of current on various materials and living beings
Different chemical elements behave differently when exposed to current. Some superconductors offer no resistance to electrons moving through them, causing no chemical reaction. Metals, when exposed to excessive stress, can break down and melt. Dielectrics that do not transmit current do not interact with it in any way and thereby protect the environment from it. This phenomenon is successfully used by humans when insulating wires with rubber.
For living organisms, current is an ambiguous phenomenon. It can have both beneficial and destructive effects. People have long used controlled shocks for therapeutic purposes: from mild brain-stimulating shocks to powerful electric shocks that can restart a stopped heart and bring a person back to life. A strong discharge can lead to serious health problems, burns, tissue death and even instant death. When working with electrical devices, you must follow safety regulations.
In nature, you can find many phenomena in which electricity plays a key role: from deep-sea creatures (electric rays) that can deliver electric shocks, to lightning during a thunderstorm. Man has long been mastering this natural force and skillfully using it, which is why all modern electronics work.
It should be remembered that natural phenomena can be both beneficial and harmful to humans. Studying from school and further education helps people to competently use the phenomena of the world for the benefit of society.
Electricity
First of all, it is worth finding out what electric current is. Electric current is the ordered movement of charged particles in a conductor. For it to arise, an electric field must first be created, under the influence of which the above-mentioned charged particles will begin to move.
The first knowledge of electricity, many centuries ago, related to electrical “charges” produced through friction. Already in ancient times, people knew that amber, rubbed with wool, acquired the ability to attract light objects. But only at the end of the 16th century, the English physician Gilbert studied this phenomenon in detail and found out that many other substances had exactly the same properties. Bodies that, like amber, after rubbing, can attract light objects, he called electrified. This word is derived from the Greek electron - “amber”. Currently, we say that bodies in this state have electrical charges, and the bodies themselves are called “charged.”
Electric charges always arise when different substances come into close contact. If the bodies are solid, then their close contact is prevented by microscopic protrusions and irregularities that are present on their surface. By squeezing such bodies and rubbing them against each other, we bring together their surfaces, which without pressure would only touch at a few points. In some bodies, electrical charges can move freely between different parts, but in others this is impossible. In the first case, the bodies are called “conductors”, and in the second - “dielectrics, or insulators”. Conductors are all metals, aqueous solutions of salts and acids, etc. Examples of insulators are amber, quartz, ebonite and all gases found under normal conditions.
Nevertheless, it should be noted that the division of bodies into conductors and dielectrics is very arbitrary. All substances conduct electricity to a greater or lesser extent. Electric charges are positive and negative. This kind of current will not last long, because the electrified body will run out of charge. For the continued existence of an electric current in a conductor, it is necessary to maintain an electric field. For these purposes, electric current sources are used. The simplest case of the occurrence of electric current is when one end of the wire is connected to an electrified body, and the other to the ground.
Electrical circuits supplying current to light bulbs and electric motors did not appear until the invention of batteries, which dates back to around 1800. After this, the development of the doctrine of electricity went so quickly that in less than a century it became not just a part of physics, but formed the basis of a new electrical civilization.
Basic quantities of electric current
Amount of electricity and current. The effects of electric current can be strong or weak. The strength of the electric current depends on the amount of charge that flows through the circuit in a certain unit of time. The more electrons moved from one pole of the source to the other, the greater the total charge transferred by the electrons. This net charge is called the amount of electricity passing through a conductor.
In particular, the chemical effect of electric current depends on the amount of electricity, i.e., the greater the charge passed through the electrolyte solution, the more substance will be deposited on the cathode and anode. In this regard, the amount of electricity can be calculated by weighing the mass of the substance deposited on the electrode and knowing the mass and charge of one ion of this substance.
Current strength is a quantity that is equal to the ratio of the electric charge passing through the cross section of the conductor to the time of its flow. The unit of charge is the coulomb (C), time is measured in seconds (s). In this case, the unit of current is expressed in C/s. This unit is called ampere (A). In order to measure the current in a circuit, an electrical measuring device called an ammeter is used. For inclusion in the circuit, the ammeter is equipped with two terminals. It is connected in series to the circuit.
Electrical voltage. We already know that electric current is the ordered movement of charged particles - electrons. This movement is created using an electric field, which does a certain amount of work. This phenomenon is called the work of electric current. In order to move more charge through an electrical circuit in 1 s, the electric field must do more work. Based on this, it turns out that the work of electric current should depend on the strength of the current. But there is one more value on which the work of the current depends. This quantity is called voltage.
Voltage is the ratio of the work done by the current in a certain section of an electrical circuit to the charge flowing through the same section of the circuit. Current work is measured in joules (J), charge - in coulombs (C). In this regard, the unit of measurement for voltage will become 1 J/C. This unit was called the volt (V).
In order for voltage to arise in an electrical circuit, a current source is needed. When the circuit is open, voltage is present only at the terminals of the current source. If this current source is included in the circuit, voltage will also arise in individual sections of the circuit. In this regard, a current will appear in the circuit. That is, we can briefly say the following: if there is no voltage in the circuit, there is no current. In order to measure voltage, an electrical measuring instrument called a voltmeter is used. In its appearance, it resembles the previously mentioned ammeter, with the only difference being that the letter V is written on the voltmeter scale (instead of A on the ammeter). The voltmeter has two terminals, with the help of which it is connected in parallel to the electrical circuit.
Electrical resistance. After connecting various conductors and an ammeter to the electrical circuit, you can notice that when using different conductors, the ammeter gives different readings, i.e. in this case, the current strength available in the electrical circuit is different. This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that different conductors have different electrical resistance, which is a physical quantity. It was named Ohm in honor of the German physicist. As a rule, larger units are used in physics: kilo-ohm, mega-ohm, etc. The resistance of a conductor is usually denoted by the letter R, the length of the conductor is L, and the cross-sectional area is S. In this case, the resistance can be written as a formula:
where the coefficient p is called resistivity. This coefficient expresses the resistance of a conductor 1 m long with a cross-sectional area equal to 1 m2. Specific resistance is expressed in Ohms x m. Since wires, as a rule, have a rather small cross-section, their areas are usually expressed in square millimeters. In this case, the unit of resistivity will be Ohm x mm2/m. In the table below. Figure 1 shows the resistivities of some materials.
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Table 1. Electrical resistivity of some materials |
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Material |
p, Ohm x m2/m |
Material |
p, Ohm x m2/m |
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Platinum-iridium alloy |
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Metal or alloy |
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Manganin (alloy) |
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Aluminum |
Constantan (alloy) |
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Tungsten |
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Nichrome (alloy) |
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Nickelin (alloy) |
Fechral (alloy) |
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Chromel (alloy) |
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According to the table. 1 it becomes clear that copper has the lowest electrical resistivity, and metal alloy has the highest. In addition, dielectrics (insulators) have high resistivity.
Electrical capacity. We already know that two conductors isolated from each other can accumulate electrical charges. This phenomenon is characterized by a physical quantity called electrical capacitance. The electrical capacitance of two conductors is nothing more than the ratio of the charge of one of them to the potential difference between this conductor and the neighboring one. The lower the voltage when the conductors receive a charge, the greater their capacity. The unit of electrical capacitance is the farad (F). In practice, fractions of this unit are used: microfarad (μF) and picofarad (pF).
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If you take two conductors isolated from each other and place them at a short distance from one another, you will get a capacitor. The capacitance of a capacitor depends on the thickness of its plates and the thickness of the dielectric and its permeability. By reducing the thickness of the dielectric between the plates of the capacitor, the capacitance of the latter can be significantly increased. On all capacitors, in addition to their capacity, the voltage for which these devices are designed must be indicated.
Work and power of electric current. From the above it is clear that electric current does some work. When connecting electric motors, the electric current makes all kinds of equipment work, moves trains along the rails, illuminates the streets, heats the home, and also produces a chemical effect, i.e., allows electrolysis, etc. We can say that the work done by the current on a certain section of the circuit is equal to the product current, voltage and time during which the work was performed. Work is measured in joules, voltage in volts, current in amperes, time in seconds. In this regard, 1 J = 1B x 1A x 1s. From this it turns out that in order to measure the work of electric current, three instruments should be used at once: an ammeter, a voltmeter and a clock. But this is cumbersome and ineffective. Therefore, usually, the work of electric current is measured with electric meters. This device contains all of the above devices.
The power of the electric current is equal to the ratio of the work of the current to the time during which it was performed. Power is designated by the letter “P” and is expressed in watts (W). In practice, kilowatts, megawatts, hectowatts, etc. are used. In order to measure the power of the circuit, you need to take a wattmeter. Electrical engineers express the work of current in kilowatt-hours (kWh).
Basic laws of electric current
Ohm's law. Voltage and current are considered the most useful characteristics of electrical circuits. One of the main features of the use of electricity is the rapid transportation of energy from one place to another and its transfer to the consumer in the required form. The product of the potential difference and the current gives power, i.e., the amount of energy given off in the circuit per unit time. As mentioned above, to measure the power in an electrical circuit, 3 devices would be needed. Is it possible to get by with just one and calculate the power from its readings and some characteristic of the circuit, such as its resistance? Many people liked this idea and found it fruitful.
So what is the resistance of a wire or circuit as a whole? Does a wire, like water pipes or vacuum system pipes, have a permanent property that could be called resistance? For example, in pipes, the ratio of the pressure difference producing flow divided by the flow rate is usually a constant characteristic of the pipe. Similarly, heat flow in a wire is governed by a simple relationship involving the temperature difference, the cross-sectional area of the wire, and its length. The discovery of such a relationship for electrical circuits was the result of a successful search.
In the 1820s, the German schoolteacher Georg Ohm was the first to begin searching for the above relationship. First of all, he strived for fame and fame, which would allow him to teach at the university. That is why he chose an area of research that promised special advantages.
Om was the son of a mechanic, so he knew how to draw metal wire of different thicknesses, which he needed for experiments. Since it was impossible to buy suitable wire in those days, Om made it himself. During his experiments, he tried different lengths, different thicknesses, different metals and even different temperatures. He varied all these factors one by one. In Ohm's time, batteries were still weak and produced inconsistent current. In this regard, the researcher used a thermocouple as a generator, the hot junction of which was placed in a flame. In addition, he used a crude magnetic ammeter, and measured potential differences (Ohm called them “voltages”) by changing the temperature or the number of thermal junctions.
The study of electrical circuits has just begun to develop. After batteries were invented around 1800, it began to develop much faster. Various devices were designed and manufactured (quite often by hand), new laws were discovered, concepts and terms appeared, etc. All this led to a deeper understanding of electrical phenomena and factors.
Updating knowledge about electricity, on the one hand, became the reason for the emergence of a new field of physics, on the other hand, it was the basis for the rapid development of electrical engineering, i.e. batteries, generators, power supply systems for lighting and electric drive, electric furnaces, electric motors, etc. were invented , other.
Ohm's discoveries were of great importance both for the development of the study of electricity and for the development of applied electrical engineering. They made it possible to easily predict the properties of electrical circuits for direct current, and subsequently for alternating current. In 1826, Ohm published a book in which he outlined theoretical conclusions and experimental results. But his hopes were not justified; the book was greeted with ridicule. This happened because the method of crude experimentation seemed unattractive in an era when many were interested in philosophy.
He had no choice but to leave his teaching position. He did not achieve an appointment to the university for the same reason. For 6 years, the scientist lived in poverty, without confidence in the future, experiencing a feeling of bitter disappointment.
But gradually his works gained fame, first outside Germany. Om was respected abroad and benefited from his research. In this regard, his compatriots were forced to recognize him in his homeland. In 1849 he received a professorship at the University of Munich.
Ohm discovered a simple law establishing the relationship between current and voltage for a piece of wire (for part of a circuit, for the entire circuit). In addition, he compiled rules that allow you to determine what will change if you take a wire of a different size. Ohm's law is formulated as follows: the current strength in a section of a circuit is directly proportional to the voltage in this section and inversely proportional to the resistance of the section.
Joule-Lenz law. Electric current in any part of the circuit does some work. For example, let's take any section of the circuit between the ends of which there is a voltage (U). By definition of electric voltage, the work done when moving a unit of charge between two points is equal to U. If the current strength in a given section of the circuit is equal to i, then in time t the charge it will pass, and therefore the work of the electric current in this section will be:
This expression is valid for direct current in any case, for any section of the circuit, which may contain conductors, electric motors, etc. The current power, i.e. work per unit time, is equal to:
This formula is used in the SI system to determine the unit of voltage.
Let us assume that the section of the circuit is a stationary conductor. In this case, all the work will turn into heat, which will be released in this conductor. If the conductor is homogeneous and obeys Ohm’s law (this includes all metals and electrolytes), then:
where r is the conductor resistance. In this case:
This law was first experimentally deduced by E. Lenz and, independently of him, by Joule.
It should be noted that heating conductors has numerous applications in technology. The most common and important among them are incandescent lighting lamps.
Law of Electromagnetic Induction. In the first half of the 19th century, the English physicist M. Faraday discovered the phenomenon of magnetic induction. This fact, having become the property of many researchers, gave a powerful impetus to the development of electrical and radio engineering.
In the course of experiments, Faraday found out that when the number of magnetic induction lines penetrating a surface bounded by a closed loop changes, an electric current arises in it. This is the basis of perhaps the most important law of physics - the law of electromagnetic induction. The current that occurs in the circuit is called induction. Due to the fact that an electric current arises in a circuit only when free charges are exposed to external forces, then with a changing magnetic flux passing along the surface of a closed circuit, these same external forces appear in it. The action of external forces in physics is called electromotive force or induced emf.
Electromagnetic induction also appears in open conductors. When a conductor crosses magnetic lines of force, voltage appears at its ends. The reason for the appearance of such voltage is the induced emf. If the magnetic flux passing through a closed loop does not change, no induced current appears.
Using the concept of “induction emf,” we can talk about the law of electromagnetic induction, i.e., the induction emf in a closed loop is equal in magnitude to the rate of change of the magnetic flux through the surface bounded by the loop.
Lenz's rule. As we already know, an induced current arises in a conductor. Depending on the conditions of its appearance, it has a different direction. On this occasion, the Russian physicist Lenz formulated the following rule: the induced current arising in a closed circuit always has such a direction that the magnetic field it creates does not allow the magnetic flux to change. All this causes the occurrence of an induction current.
Induction current, like any other, has energy. This means that in the event of an induction current, electrical energy appears. According to the law of conservation and transformation of energy, the above-mentioned energy can only arise due to the amount of energy of some other type of energy. Thus, Lenz's rule fully corresponds to the law of conservation and transformation of energy.
In addition to induction, so-called self-induction can appear in the coil. Its essence is as follows. If a current arises in the coil or its strength changes, a changing magnetic field appears. And if the magnetic flux passing through the coil changes, then an electromotive force appears in it, which is called self-induction emf.
According to Lenz's rule, the self-inductive emf when closing a circuit interferes with the current strength and prevents it from increasing. When the circuit is turned off, the self-inductive emf reduces the current strength. In the case when the current strength in the coil reaches a certain value, the magnetic field stops changing and the self-induction emf becomes zero.
This article shows that in modern physics the idea of electric current is mythologized and has no evidence of its modern interpretation.
From the standpoint of etherodynamics, the concept of electric current as a flow of photon gas and the conditions for its existence are substantiated.
Introduction. In the history of science, the 19th century was called the century of electricity. The amazing 19th century, which laid the foundations for the scientific and technological revolution that so changed the world, began with a galvanic cell - the first battery, a chemical source of current (voltaic column) and the discovery of electric current. Electric current research was carried out on a large scale in the early years of the 19th century. gave impetus to the penetration of electricity into all spheres of human life. Modern life is unthinkable without radio and television, telephone, smartphone and computer, all kinds of lighting and heating devices, machines and devices based on the possibility of using electric current.
However, the widespread use of electricity from the first days of the discovery of electric current is in deep contradiction with its theoretical justification. Neither 19th century nor modern physics can answer the question: what is electric current? For example, in the following statement from Encyclopedia Britannica:
“The question: “What is electricity?”, like the question: “What is matter?”, lies outside the sphere of physics and belongs to the sphere of metaphysics.”
The first widely known experiments with electric current were carried out by the Italian physicist Galvani at the end of the 18th century. Another Italian physicist Volta created the first device capable of producing a long-term electric current - a galvanic cell. Volta showed that the contact of dissimilar metals leads them to an electrical state and that from the addition of a liquid that conducts electricity to them, a direct flow of electricity is formed. The current resulting in this case is called galvanic current and the phenomenon itself is called galvanism. At the same time, current in Volta’s view is the movement of electrical fluids - fluids.
A significant shift in understanding the essence of electric current was made
M. Faraday. He proved the identity of certain types of electricity originating from different sources. The most important works were experiments in electrolysis. The discovery was taken as one proof that moving electricity is virtually identical to electricity caused by friction, i.e. static electricity. His series of ingenious experiments on electrolysis served as convincing confirmation of the idea, the essence of which boils down to the following: if a substance by its nature has an atomic structure, then in the process of electrolysis each atom receives a certain amount of electricity.
In 1874, the Irish physicist J. Stoney (Stoney) gave a talk in Belfast in which he used Faraday's laws of electrolysis as the basis for the atomic theory of electricity. Based on the magnitude of the total charge passing through the electrolyte and a rather rough estimate of the number of hydrogen atoms released at the cathode, Stoney obtained for the elementary charge a number of the order of 10 -20 C (in modern units). This report was not fully published until 1881, when a German scientist
G. Helmholtz noted in one of his lectures in London that if one accepts the hypothesis of the atomic structure of elements, one cannot help but come to the conclusion that electricity is also divided into elementary portions or “atoms of electricity.” This conclusion of Helmholtz essentially followed from Faraday's results on electrolysis and was reminiscent of Faraday's own statement. Faraday's studies of electrolysis played a fundamental role in the development of electronic theory.
In 1891, Stoney, who supported the idea that Faraday's laws of electrolysis meant the existence of a natural unit of charge, coined the term "electron".
However, soon the term electron, introduced by Stone, loses its original essence. In 1892 H. Lorentz forms his own theory of electrons. According to him, electricity arises from the movement of tiny charged particles - positive and negative electrons.
At the end of the 19th century. The electronic theory of conductivity began to develop. The beginning of the theory was given in 1900 by the German physicist Paul Drude. Drude's theory was included in physics courses under the name of the classical theory of electrical conductivity of metals. In this theory, electrons are likened to atoms of an ideal gas filling the crystal lattice of a metal, and the electric current is represented as a flow of this electron gas.
After the presentation of Rutherford's model of the atom, a series of measurements of the value of the elementary charge in the 20s of the twentieth century. In physics, the idea of electric current as a flow of free electrons, the structural elements of an atom of matter, was finally formed.
However, the free electron model turned out to be untenable in explaining the essence of electric current in liquid electrolytes, gases and semiconductors. To support the existing theory of electric current, new electric charge carriers were introduced - ions and holes.
Based on the above, a concept that is final by modern standards has been formed in modern physics: electric current is the directed movement of electric charge carriers (electrons, ions, holes, etc.).
The direction of the electric current is taken to be the direction of movement of positive charges; if the current is created by negatively charged particles (for example, electrons), then the direction of the current is considered opposite to the movement of the particles.
Electric current is called constant if the strength of the current and its direction do not change over time. For the occurrence and maintenance of current in any medium, two conditions must be met: - the presence of free electric charges in the medium; — creation of an electric field in the medium.
However, this representation of electric current turned out to be untenable in describing the phenomenon of superconductivity. In addition, as it turned out, there are many contradictions in the specified representation of electric current when describing the functioning of almost all types of electronic devices. The need to interpret the concept of electric current in different conditions and in different types of electronic devices, on the one hand, as well as a lack of understanding of the essence of electric current, on the other, forced modern physics to make an electron, the carrier of an electric charge, a “figaro” (“free”, “fast”, “knocked out”, “emitted”, “braking”, “relativistic”, “photo”, “thermo”, etc.), which finally raised the question “ what is electric current? to a dead end.
The importance of the theoretical concept of electric current in modern conditions has grown significantly not only due to the widespread use of electricity in human life, but also because of the high cost and technical feasibility, for example, scientific megaprojects implemented by all developed countries of the world, in which the concept of electric current plays a role significant role.
Ethereal dynamic concept of representing electric current. From the above definition it follows that electric current is directional movement electric charge carriers. Obviously, revealing the physical essence of electric current lies in solving the problem of the physical essence of electric charge and what is the carrier of this charge.
The problem of the physical essence of electric charge is an unsolved problem, both by classical physics and modern quantum physics throughout the history of the development of electricity. The solution to this problem turned out to be possible only using the methodology of etherodynamics, a new concept in physics of the 21st century.
According to the etherodynamic definition: electric charge is a measure of the movement of the flow of ether... . Electric charge is a property inherent in all elementary particles and nothing more. Electric charge is a quantity with a definite sign, that is, it is always positive.
From the indicated physical essence of the electric charge it follows that the above definition of electric current is incorrect in terms of the fact that ions, holes, etc. cannot be the cause of electric current due to the fact that they are not carriers of electric charge, since they are not elements of the organizational level of physical matter - elementary particles (according to the definition).
Electrons, as elementary particles, have an electric charge, however, according to the definition: are one of the basic structural units of matter, formelectronic shells atoms , the structure of which determines most optical, electrical, magnetic, mechanical andchemical properties substances, cannot be mobile (free) carriers of electric charge. The free electron is a myth created by modern physics to interpret the concept of electric current, which does not have any practical or theoretical proof. It is obvious that as soon as a “free” electron leaves an atom of a substance, forming an electric current, changes in the physical and chemical properties of this substance (according to the definition) must certainly occur, which is not observed in nature. This assumption was confirmed by the experiments of the German physicist Karl Viktor Eduard Rikke: “the passage of current through metals (conductors of the first kind) is not accompanied by a chemical change in them.” Currently, the dependence of the physicochemical properties of a substance on the presence of one or another electron in an atom of a substance has been well studied and confirmed experimentally, for example, in the work.
There is also a reference to experiments performed for the first time in 1912 by L. I. Mandelstam and N. D. Papaleksi, but not published by them. Four years later (1916), R. C. Tolman and T. D. Stewart published the results of their experiments, which turned out to be similar to the experiments of Mandelstam and Papaleksi. In modern physics, these experiments serve as direct confirmation that free electrons should be considered carriers of electricity in a metal.
In order to understand the incorrectness of these experiments, it is enough to consider the diagram and methodology of the experiment, in which an inductance coil was used as a conductor, which spun around its axis and stopped abruptly. The coil was connected using sliding contacts to a galvanometer, which recorded the occurrence of inertial emf. In fact, we can say that in this experiment the role of external forces creating EMF was played by the force of inertia, i.e. if there are free charge carriers in the metal that have mass, then They must obeylaw of inertia . Statement " They must obeylaw of inertia ” erroneous in the sense that, according to the level approach to the organization of physical matter, electrons, as elements of the “elementary particles” level, obey only the laws of electro- and gas dynamics, i.e., the laws of mechanics (Newton) are not applicable to them.
To make this assumption convincing, let’s consider the well-known problem 3.1: calculate the ratio of electrostatic (Fe) and gravitational (Fgr) interaction forces between two electrons and between two protons.
Solution: for electrons Fe / Fgr = 4·10 42, for protons Fe / Fgr = 1.24·10 36, i.e. the influence of gravitational forces is so small that it is not necessary to take them into account. This statement is also true for inertial forces.
This means that the expression for the emf (proposed by R. C. Tolman and T. D. Stewart), based on its definition in terms of external forces Fstore, acting on charges inside a conductor subjected to braking:
ε = 1/e ∫F store∙dl,
incorrect in its formulation, due to the fact that Fstore → 0.
However, as a result of the experiment, a short-term deviation of the galvanometer needle was observed, which requires explanation. To understand this process, you should pay attention to the galvanometer itself, for which the so-called ballistic galvanometer was used. Its instructions for use have this option.
A ballistic galvanometer can be used as a webermeter (i.e., measure magnetic flux through a closed conductor, such as a coil), to do this, an inductive coil is connected to the contacts of the ballistic galvanometer, which is placed in a magnetic field. If after this you sharply remove the coil from the magnetic field or turn it so that the axis of the coil is perpendicular to the field lines, then you can measure the charge passed through the coil due to electromagnetic induction, because the change in magnetic flux is proportional to the charge passed through; by calibrating the galvanometer accordingly, it is possible to determine the change in flux in Webers.
From the above it is obvious that the use of a ballistic galvanometer as a webermeter corresponds to the method of experiment of R. C. Tolman and T. D. Stewart in observing inertial current in metals. The question remains open about the source of the magnetic field, which, for example, could be the Earth's magnetic field. The influence of an external magnetic field was not taken into account or studied by R. C. Tolman and T. D. Stewart, which led to the mythologization of the results of the experiment.
The essence of electric current. From the above it follows that the answer to the question, what is electric current? is also a solution to the problem of electric charge carrier. Based on existing concepts of this problem, it is possible to formulate a number of requirements that the electric charge carrier must satisfy. Namely: the carrier of the electric charge must be an elementary particle; the electrical charge carrier must be a free and long-lived element; The electric charge carrier must not destroy the structure of the atom of the substance.
A simple analysis of existing facts allows us to conclude that the above requirements are satisfied by only one element of the “elementary particles” level of physical matter: an elementary particle - photon.
The combination of photons together with the medium (ether) in which they exist form a photon gas.
Taking into account the physical essence of the photon and the above information, we can give the following definition:
Electric current is a flow of photon gas designed to transfer energy.
To understand the mechanism of movement of electric current, consider the well-known model of methane gas transportation. Simply put, it includes a main pipeline that delivers methane gas from a gas field to the place of consumption. To move methane gas through the main pipeline, the following condition must be met: the pressure of methane gas at the beginning of the pipeline must be greater than the pressure of methane gas at its end.
By analogy with the transportation of methane gas, let us consider a diagram of the movement of electric current, consisting of a battery (electric current source) having two contacts “+” and “-“ and a conductor. If we connect a metal conductor to the battery contacts, we get a model of the movement of electric current, similar to the transportation of methane gas.
The condition for the existence of an electric current in a conductor, by analogy with the model of methane gas transportation, is the presence of: a source (gas) of increased pressure, i.e. a source of high concentration of electric charge carriers; pipeline - conductor; gas consumer, i.e., an element that provides a decrease in gas pressure, i.e., an element (drain) that provides a decrease in the concentration of electric charge carriers.
The difference between electrical circuits and gas, hydro, etc. is that the source and drain are structurally implemented in one unit (chemical current source - battery, electric generator, etc.). The mechanism for the flow of electric current is as follows: after connecting the conductor to a battery, for example, a chemical current source, a chemical reduction reaction occurs in the “+” contact area (anode), as a result of which photons are generated, i.e., a zone of increased carrier concentration is formed electric charge. At the same time, in the “-“ (cathode) contact zone, under the influence of photons that find themselves in this zone as a result of flow through the conductor, an oxidation reaction (photon consumption) occurs, i.e., a zone of reduced concentration of electric charge carriers is formed. Electric charge carriers (photons) move from a zone of high concentration (source) along a conductor to a zone of low concentration (sink). Thus, the external force or electromotive force (EMF) that provides electric current in the circuit is the difference in the concentration (pressure) of electric charge carriers (photons), resulting from the operation of chemical current sources.
This circumstance once again emphasizes the validity of the main conclusion of energy dynamics, according to which force fields (including the electric field) are created not by masses, charges and currents themselves, but by their uneven distribution in space.
Based on the considered essence of electric current, the absurdity of the experiment of R. C. Tolman and T. D. Stewart in observing inertial current in metals is obvious. There is currently no method for generating photons by changing the speed of mechanical movement of any macroscopic body in nature.
An interesting aspect of the above representation of electric current is its comparison with the representation of the concept of “light”, discussed in the work: light is a flow of photon gas... . This comparison allows us to conclude: light is an electric current. The difference in these concepts lies only in the spectral composition of the photons that form light or electric current, for example, in metal conductors. For a more convincing understanding of this circumstance, consider a circuit for generating electric current using a solar battery. The flow of sunlight (photons in the visible range) from the source (the sun) reaches the solar battery, which converts the incident light flow into an electric current (photon flow), which flows through a metal conductor to the consumer (drain). In this case, the solar battery acts as a converter of the spectrum of the photon flux emitted by the sun into the spectrum of photons of electric current in a metal conductor.
conclusions. There is no evidence in modern physics that electric current is the directed movement of electrons or any other particles. On the contrary, modern ideas about the electron, electric charge and Riecke's experiments show the fallacy of this concept of electric current.
Justification of the set of requirements for the carrier of electric charge, taking into account its ether-dynamic essence, made it possible to establish that electric current it is a stream of photon gas designed to transfer energy.
The movement of electric current is carried out from an area of high photon concentration (source) to an area of low concentration (drain).
For the generation and maintenance of current in any medium, three conditions must be met: maintenance (generation) of a high concentration of photons in the source area, the presence of a conductor that ensures the flow of photons, and the creation of a photon consumption zone in the drain area.
Electricity Electron.
Lyamin V.S. , Lyamin D. V. Lvov
Electric current is the ordered movement of charged particles.2. Under what conditions does electric current occur?
Electric current occurs if there are free charges, as well as as a result of the action of an external electric field. To obtain an electric field, it is enough to create a potential difference between some two points of the conductor.3. Why is the movement of charged particles in a conductor in the absence of an external electric field chaotic?
If there is no external electric field, then there is also no additional velocity component directed along the electric field strength, which means that all directions of particle motion are equal.4. How does the movement of charged particles in a conductor differ in the absence and presence of an external electric field?
In the absence of an electric field, the movement of charged particles is chaotic, and in its presence, the movement of particles is the result of chaotic and translational movements.5. How is the direction of electric current selected? In what direction do electrons move in a metal conductor carrying electric current?
The direction of the electric current is taken to be the direction of movement of positively charged particles. In a metal conductor, electrons move in the direction opposite to the direction of the current.ELECTRIC CURRENTS
change from 10/22/2013 - ( )
One property of matter that one would like to describe arises from the interaction between matter and a subatomic particle, the electron. This property is understood as electric current. Although this description is radically different from the modern understanding of what an electron is and what role it plays in electric current, essentially the concept itself can be understood by reading only this article. For a deeper understanding of the material presented, it is recommended that you read the first volume of the book by Dewey B. Larson "The Structure of the Physical Universe", and the basis of this article is taken from the second volume of the same series. Therefore, if you take the second volume, you will find this material there, but in a more expanded form, which complicates its understanding. This article is intended to give a general understanding of the essence of electric current, and once you grasp the essence, you will understand the details.
So, Larson realized that the Universe is not just a space-time structure of matter, as is commonly believed in traditional science. He discovered that the Universe is a Movement in which space and time are simply two interdependent and non-existent aspects of movement, and have no other meaning. The universe in which we live is not a universe of matter, but a universe of motion, a universe in which the basic reality is motion, and all physical realities and phenomena, including matter, are simply manifestations of motion, existing in three dimensions, in discrete units and with two interdependent aspects - space and time. Space is called the material sector, time - the cosmic sector. The movements themselves and their combinations can exist both in space (positive displacement) and in time (negative displacement) or simultaneously in both, while being one-dimensional, two-dimensional or three-dimensional. Moreover, one-dimensional movements can be correlated with electrical phenomena, two-dimensional ones with magnetic ones, and three-dimensional ones with gravity. Based on this, an atom is simply a combination of movements. Radiation is motion, gravity is motion, electric charge is motion, and so on.
If you don't understand anything, read first.
As stated in Volume 1, the electron is a unique particle. This is the only particle built on the basis of material rotation that has an effective negative rotation bias. More than one unit of negative spin would exceed one positive spin unit of the base spin and would result in a negative amount of overall spin. But for the electron, the resulting total spin is positive, although it includes one positive and one negative unit, since a positive unit is two-dimensional and a negative one is one-dimensional.
So, essentially, electron is just a spinning unit of space. This concept is quite difficult for most people to understand when they first encounter it, because it contradicts the idea of the nature of space that we have acquired through long but uncritical examination of our surroundings. However, the history of science is replete with examples in which a familiar and rather unique phenomenon is discovered to be simply one member of a general class, all members of which have the same physical meaning. A good example is energy. For the researchers who laid the foundation of modern science in the Middle Ages, the property of moving bodies to persist due to motion was called “motive force”; For us, “kinetic energy” has a unique nature. The idea that, due to its chemical composition, a stationary wooden stick contained the equivalent of a “motive force” was as foreign as the concept of a rotating unit of space to most people today. But the discovery that kinetic energy is just one form of energy in general opened the door to significant advances in physical understanding. Likewise, the discovery that the “space” of our everyday experience, extension space as it is called in Larson's work, is simply one manifestation of space as a whole opens the door to understanding many aspects of the physical universe, including phenomena related to the movement of electrons in matter.
In the universe of motion - the universe whose details we are developing - space enters into physical phenomena only as a component of motion. And for most purposes, the specific nature of space is irrelevant, just as the specific kind of energy that goes into a physical process is usually not relevant to the outcome of the process. Hence the status of the electron as a rotating unit of space gives it a special role in the physical activity of the universe. It should now be noted that the electron we are discussing does not carry any charge. An electron is a combination of two movements: basic vibration and rotation of the vibrating unit. As we will see later, electric charge is an additional movement that can be superimposed on a combination of two components. The behavior of charged electrons will be considered after the preparatory work has been carried out. Now we are concerned uncharged electrons.
As a unit of space, an uncharged electron cannot move in continuation space, since the ratio of space to space does not constitute motion (from Larson's postulates). But under certain conditions it can move in ordinary matter, due to the fact that matter is a combination of movements with a final, positive or temporary displacement, and the relation of space to time constitutes motion. The modern view of the movement of electrons in solid matter is that they move in the spaces between atoms. Then, resistance to the flow of electrons is considered to be similar to friction. Our discovery is this: electrons (units of space) exist in matter and move in matter in the same way that matter moves in continuation space.
The directional movement of electrons in matter will be defined as electric current. If the atoms of the matter through which the current passes are at rest relative to the structure of the solid aggregate as a whole, the constant movement of electrons (space) in the matter has the same general properties as the movement of matter in space. It follows Newton's first law (law of inertia) and can continue indefinitely without adding energy. This situation occurs in a phenomenon known as superconductivity, which was observed experimentally in many substances at very low temperatures. But if the atoms of a material aggregate are in active temperature motion ( temperature is a type of one-dimensional movement), the movement of electrons in matter adds to the spatial component of temperature movement (that is, increases speed) and thereby introduces energy (heat) into the moving atoms.
The magnitude of the current is measured by the number of electrons (units of space) per unit of time. Unit of space per unit of time is the definition of speed, so electric current is speed. From a mathematical point of view, it does not matter whether the mass moves in extension space or whether space moves in the mass. Therefore, in dealing with electric current we are dealing with the mechanical aspects of electricity, and the phenomenon of current can be described by the same mathematical equations that apply to ordinary motion in space, with due modifications due to differences in conditions, if such differences exist. The same units could be used, but for historical reasons and for convenience, modern practice uses a separate system of units.
The basic unit of current electricity is a unit of quantity. In the natural frame of reference, this is the spatial aspect of one electron, which has a velocity displacement of one unit. Therefore, the quantity q is the equivalent of space s. In the flow of current, energy has the same status as in mechanical relations, and has space-time dimensions t/s. Energy divided by time is power, 1/s. A further subdivision of the current, having the dimensions of speed s/t, creates an electromotive force (emf) with dimensions 1/s x t/s = t/s². Of course, they are space-time dimensions of force in general.
The term "electric potential" is commonly used as an alternative to emf, but for reasons that will be discussed later, we will not use "potential" in this sense. If a more convenient term than emf is appropriate, we will use the term “voltage,” symbol U.
Dividing the voltage t/s² by the current s/t, we get t²/s³. This resistance, symbol R, is the only electrical quantity considered so far that is not equivalent to the familiar mechanical quantity. The true nature of resistance is revealed by examining its spatiotemporal structure. The measurements t²/s³ are equivalent to the mass t³/s³ divided by the time t. Hence, resistance is mass per unit time. The relevance of such a quantity is easily seen if we realize that the amount of mass included in the motion of space (electrons) in matter is not a fixed quantity, as is the case in the motion of matter in continuation space, but a quantity that depends on the momentum of the electrons. When matter moves in continuation space, the mass is constant, and the space depends on the duration of the movement. When current flows, space (the number of electrons) is constant, and mass depends on the duration of movement. If the flow is short-lived, each electron may move only a small fraction of the total amount of mass in the chain, but if the flow is long-lasting, it may re-pass through the entire chain. In either case, the total mass involved in the current is the product of the mass per unit time (resistance) times the time of the flow. When matter moves in the space of extensions, the general space is determined in the same way; that is, it is the product of space per unit of time (speed) and the time of movement.
When dealing with resistance as a property of matter, we will be mainly interested in resistivity or resistance, which is defined as the resistance of a unit cube of the substance in question. Resistance is directly proportional to the distance traveled by the current and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the conductor. It follows that if we multiply the resistance per unit area and divide by the unit distance, we obtain a value with measurements t²/s², reflecting only the inherent characteristics of the material and environmental conditions (mainly temperature and pressure) and does not depend on the geometric structure of the conductor. The inverse quality of resistivity or resistance is - conductivity and electrical conductivity, respectively.
Having clarified the space-time dimensions of resistance, we can return to the empirically determined relationships between resistance and other electrical quantities and confirm the consistency of space-time definitions.
Voltage: U = IR = s/t x t²/s³ = t/s²
Power: P = I²R = t²/s² x t²/s³ = 1/s
Energy: E = I²Rt = s²/t² x t²/s³ x t = t/s
The energy equation demonstrates the equivalence of mathematical expressions of electrical and mechanical phenomena. Since resistance is mass per unit time, the product of resistance and time Rt is equivalent to mass m. The current, I, is the speed v. Thus, the expression for electrical energy RtI² is equivalent to the expression for kinetic energy 1/2mv². In other words, the value of RtI² is the kinetic energy of electron motion.
Instead of using resistance, time and current, we can express energy in terms of voltage U (equivalent to IR) and magnitude q (equivalent to It). Then the expression for the amount of energy (or work) is W = Uq. Here we have some confirmation of the definition of electricity as the equivalent of space. As described in one of the standard physics textbooks, force is “a well-defined vector quantity that creates a change in the motion of objects.” Emf or voltage fits this description. It creates the movement of electrons in the direction of the voltage drop. Energy is the product of force and distance. Electrical energy Uq is the product of force and quantity. It follows that the amount of electricity is equivalent to the distance - the same conclusion that we drew about the nature of the uncharged electron.
In traditional scientific thought, the status of electrical energy as a form of energy in general is taken for granted, since it can be converted into any other forms, but the status of electric or electromotive force as a form of force in general is not accepted. If this were accepted, then the conclusion drawn in the previous paragraph would be inevitable. But the verdict of the observed facts is ignored by the general impression that quantity of electricity and space are entities of an entirely different nature.
Previous students of electrical phenomena recognized that a quantity measured in volts had the characteristics of a force and named it accordingly. Modern theorists reject this definition because of a conflict with their view of the nature of electric current. For example, W. J. Duffin offers a definition of electromotive force (emf) and then says:
“Despite the name, it is definitely not a force, but it is equal to the work done per unit of positive charge if the charge is moving in a circle (that is, in an electrical circuit); therefore this unit is the volt.”
Work per unit of space is force. The author simply takes it on faith that the moving entity, which he calls charge, is not equivalent to space. Thus, he comes to the conclusion that a quantity measured in volts cannot be a force. We believe that he is wrong, and that the moving entity is not a charge, but a rotating unit of space (an uncharged electron). Then electromotive force, measured in volts, is actually force. Essentially, Duffin acknowledges this fact by saying in another connection that “U/n (volts per meter) is the same as N/C (newtons per coulomb).”. Both express the voltage difference in terms of force divided by space.
Traditional physical theory does not claim to offer insight into the nature of either the quantity of electricity or the electric charge. It simply assumes: Since scientific research is unable to provide any explanation of the nature of electric charge, it must be a unique entity independent of other fundamental physical entities, and must be accepted as one of the “given” characteristics of nature. It is further assumed that this entity of an unknown nature, which plays a major role in electrostatic phenomena, is identical to the entity of an unknown nature, the quantity of electricity, which plays a major role in the flow of electricity.
The most significant weakness of the traditional theory of electric current, the theory based on the above assumptions, which we can now consider in the light of a more complete understanding of the physical foundations derived from the theory of the universe of motion, is that it assigns two different and incompatible roles to electrons. According to current theory, these particles are components atomic structure, it is at least conceivable that some of them are freely adaptable to any electrical forces applied to the conductor. On the one hand, each particle is so tightly bound to the rest of the atom that it plays a significant role in determining the properties of the atom, and in order to separate it from the atom, a significant force (ionization potential) is required. On the other hand, electrons move so freely that they will respond to thermal or electrical forces whose magnitude is slightly greater than zero. They must exist in a conductor in certain quantities, if we consider that the conductor is electrically neutral, although it carries an electric current. At the same time, they must freely leave the conductor (either in large or small quantities) provided they acquire a sufficient amount of kinetic energy.
It should be obvious that the theories call on electrons to perform two different and conflicting functions. They have been assigned a key position in both the theory of atomic structure and the theory of electric current, ignoring the fact that the properties they must have to perform the functions required by one theory interfere with the functions they are called upon to perform in the other theory.
In the theory of the universe of motion, each of these phenomena involves a different physical entity. The unit of atomic structure is the unit of rotational motion, not the electron. It has a kind of permanent status that is required for an atomic component. The electron, without charge and without any connection to the atomic structure, is then available as a freely moving unit of electric current.
The fundamental postulate of the Reverse System theory says that the physical universe is a universe of motion, a universe in which all entities and phenomena are movements, combinations of movements, or relationships between movements. In such a universe, all basic phenomena are explainable. There is nothing that is “unanalyzable,” as Bridgman puts it. The basic entities and phenomena of the universe of motion—radiation, gravity, matter, electricity, magnetism, and so on—can be defined in terms of space and time. Unlike traditional physical theory, the Inverse System must not leave its basic elements to the mercy of metaphysical mystery. It should not exclude them from physical investigation, as the following statement from the Encyclopaedia Britannica states:
“The question: “What is electricity?”, like the question: “What is matter?”, lies outside the sphere of physics and belongs to the sphere of metaphysics.”
In a universe consisting entirely of motion, the electrical charge belonging to the physical entity must necessarily be motion. Then the problem facing theoretical research is not the answer to the question: “What is an electric charge?”, but the definition, what type of motion manifests itself as a charge. The definition of charge as complementary motion not only clarifies the relation between the experimentally observed charged electron and the uncharged electron known only as a moving entity in an electric current, but also explains the interchange between them, which is a fundamental support for the now popular opinion that only one entity is involved in the process - charge. It is not always remembered that this opinion achieved general recognition only after a long and lively debate. There are similarities between static and current phenomena, but there are also significant differences. At present, in the absence of any theoretical explanation for any kind of electricity, the question to be resolved is whether charged and uncharged electrons are identical due to their similarities or incomparable due to their differences. The decision in favor of identity prevailed, although over time much evidence accumulated against the validity of this decision.
The similarity appears in two general ways: (1) some properties of charged particles and electric currents are similar; (2) transitions from one to another are observed. The definition of a charged electron as an uncharged electron with additional motion explains both types of similarities. For example, the demonstration that a rapidly moving charge has the same magnetic properties as an electric current was a major factor in the victory won by proponents of the electric current “charge” theory many years ago. But our discoveries show that the moving entities are electrons or other charge carriers, so the existence or non-existence of electric charges is irrelevant.
A second type of evidence that has been interpreted to support the identity of static and moving electrons is the apparent replacement of a flowing electron by a charged electron in processes such as electrolysis. Here the explanation is: electric charge is easily created and easily destroyed. As everyone knows, only a small amount of friction is required to create an electrical current on many surfaces, such as modern synthetic fibers. It follows that whenever there exists a concentration of energy in one of the forms capable of being liberated by transformation into another, the rotational vibration constituting the charge either arises or disappears to permit the kind of motion of the electrons which takes place in response to the force exerted.
To follow the prevailing policy of treating two different quantities as identical and using the same units for both is possible only because the two different uses are absolutely separate in most cases. In such circumstances, the calculations do not introduce error from using identical units, but in any case, if a calculation or theoretical consideration involves quantities of both types, a clear distinction is necessary.
As an analogy, we can assume that we want to establish a system of units in which the properties of water are expressed. Let's also assume that we cannot recognize the difference between the properties of weight and volume, and therefore express them in cubic centimeters. This system is equivalent to using a unit of weight of one gram. And so long as we deal separately with weight and volume, each in its own context, the fact that the expression “cubic centimeter” has two completely different meanings does not lead to any difficulty. However, if we are dealing with both qualities at the same time, it is essential to recognize the difference between them. The division of cubic centimeters (weight) by cubic centimeters (volume) is not expressed as a dimensionless number, as calculations would seem to indicate; the coefficient is a physical quantity with dimensions weight/volume. Likewise, we can use the same units for electric charge and quantity of electricity as long as they work independently and in the correct context, but if both quantities are included in a calculation or they work individually with the wrong physical dimensions, confusion arises.
Dimensional confusion resulting from a misunderstanding of the difference between charged and uncharged electrons has been a source of considerable concern and confusion among theoretical physicists. It was an obstacle to the establishment of any comprehensive systematic connection between the dimensions of physical quantities. Failure to discover a basis for connection is a clear indication that there is something wrong with the dimensions themselves, but instead of recognizing this fact, the current reaction is to sweep the problem under the rug and claim that the problem does not exist. This is how one observer sees the picture:
“In the past, the topic of size was controversial. It took years of unsuccessful attempts to discover the “inherent, rational relationships” in terms of which all dimensional formulas should be expressed. It is now generally accepted that there is no one absolute set of sizing formulas.”
This is a common reaction to years of frustration, a reaction that we have often encountered in researching the topics discussed in Volume 1. When the best efforts of generation after generation of researchers fail to achieve a certain goal, there is always a strong temptation to declare that the goal is simply unattainable . “In short,” says Alfred Lande, “if you cannot clarify a problem situation, announce that it is “fundamental, and then promulgate the corresponding principle.” Therefore, physical science is full of principles of impotence rather than explanations.
In the universe of motion, the dimensions of all quantities of all kinds can only be expressed in terms of space and time. The space-time dimensions of basic mechanical quantities are defined in Volume 1. Here we add the dimensions of quantities involved in the flow of electric current.
Clarification of dimensional relationships is accompanied by the definition of the natural unit of magnitude of different physical quantities. The system of units commonly used when working with electrical currents developed independently of mechanical units on an ad hoc basis. To establish the relationship between the random system and the natural system of units, it will be necessary to measure one physical quantity, the value of which can be determined in the natural system, as was done in the previous determination of the relationships between the natural and traditional units of space, time and mass. For this purpose, we will use Faraday's constant - the observed relationship between the amount of electricity and the mass involved in electrolysis. Multiplying this constant, 2.89366 x 10 14 ese/g-equiv, by the natural unit of atomic weight 1.65979 x 10 -24 g, we obtain as a natural unit of quantity of electricity 4.80287 x 10 -10 ese.
Initially, the definition of the unit of charge ( ese) using the Coulomb equation in an electrostatic measurement system was planned to be used as a means of introducing electrical quantities into a mechanical measurement system. But here the electrostatic unit of charge and other electrical units, including ese, constitute a separate system of measurement in which t/s is identified with electric charge.
The magnitude of electric current is the number of electrons per unit of time, that is, units of space per unit of time or speed. Therefore, the natural unit of current can be expressed as the natural unit of speed, 2.99793 x 10 10 cm/sec. In electrical terms, it is the natural unit of quantity divided by the natural unit of time, it is equal to 3.15842 x 10 6 ese/sec or 1.05353 x 10 -3 amperes. Therefore, the traditional unit of electrical energy, watt-hour, is equal to 3.6 x 10 10 erg. The natural unit of energy, 1.49275 x 10 -3 erg, is equivalent to 4.14375 x 10 -14 watt-hours. Dividing this unit by the natural unit of time, we get the natural unit of power - 9.8099 x 10 12 erg/sec = 9.8099 x 10 5 watts. Then dividing by the natural unit of current gives us the natural unit of electromotive force or voltage of 9.31146 x 10 8 Volts. Dividing further by the current gives a natural unit of resistance of 8.83834 x 10 11 ohms.
Another quantity of electricity that deserves mention because of the key role it plays in the modern mathematical approach to magnetism is “current density.” It is defined as “the amount of charge passing per second through a unit area of a plane perpendicular to the line of flow.” It is a strange quantity, differing from any other quantity already discussed in that it is not a relation between space and time. Once we realize that this quantity is actually current per unit area and not “charge” (a fact confirmed by the units, amperes per square meter, in which it is expressed), its space-time dimensions appear to be s/ t x 1/s² = 1/st. They are not dimensions of motion or properties of motion. It follows that, in general, this quantity has no physical significance. It's just a mathematical convenience.
The fundamental laws of electric current known to modern science, such as Ohm's Law, Kirchhoff's Law and their derivatives, are merely empirical generalizations and their application is not affected by the clarification of the true nature of electric current. The essence of these laws and the relevant details are adequately described in the existing scientific and technical literature.
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
Although the motion of an electric current in matter is equivalent to the motion of matter in space, the conditions encountered by each type of motion in our everyday experience highlight different aspects of the general propositions. When we are dealing with the movement of matter in continuation space, we are mainly interested in the movements of individual objects. Newton's laws of motion, the cornerstones of mechanics, deal with the application of force to cause or change the motion of such objects and with the transmission of motion from one object to another. On the other hand, in the case of electric current we are concerned with aspects of the continuity of the flow of current, and the status of the individual objects involved is not relevant.
The mobility of space units in a current flow introduces some types of variability that are absent in the movement of matter in continuation space. Therefore, there are behavioral characteristics or properties of material structures that are characteristic of the relationship between the structures and moving electrons. To put it another way, we can say that matter has some characteristic electrical properties. The main property of this nature is resistance. As stated earlier, resistance is the only quantity involved in the fundamental relations of current flow that is not a familiar characteristic of the system of equations of mechanics, equations dealing with the movement of matter in continuation space.
One of the authors summarizes modern ideas about the origin of electrical resistance as follows:
“The ability to conduct electricity... arises from the presence of a huge number of quasi-free electrons, which, under the influence of an electric field, are able to flow through a metal lattice... Exciting influences... impede the free flow of electrons, scattering them and creating resistance.”
As already indicated, the development of the theory of the universe of motion leads to the directly opposite concept of the nature of electrical resistance. We find that electrons are removed from the environment. As discussed in Volume 1, there are physical processes at work that create electrons in significant quantities, and that although the motions that constitute these electrons are in many cases absorbed by atomic structures, the ability to exploit this type of motion in such structures is limited. It follows that in the material sector of the universe there is always a large excess of free electrons, most of which are not charged. In an uncharged state, electrons cannot move in connection with the space of extensions, because they are rotating units of space, and the relation of space to space is not movement. Therefore, in open space, each uncharged electron is constantly in the same position relative to the natural reference system, in the same way as a photon. In the context of a stationary spatial reference frame, an uncharged electron, like a photon, is carried outward at the speed of light by the sequence of the natural reference frame. Thus, all material aggregates are exposed to a flow of electrons, like a continuous bombardment of photons of radiation. However, there are other processes where electrons are returned to the environment. Consequently, the electron population of a material aggregate such as the Earth stabilizes at an equilibrium level.
The processes that determine the equilibrium of the electron concentration do not depend on the nature of the atoms of matter and the volume of the atoms. Therefore, in electrically insulated conductors, where there is no current flow, the electron concentration is constant. It follows from this that the number of electrons involved in the thermal motion of atoms of matter is proportional to the volume of the atom, and the energy of this motion is determined by the effective rotation coefficients of the atoms. Hence, resistance is determined by the volume of the atom and thermal energy.
Substances in which rotational motion occurs entirely in time have thermal motion in space, according to the general rule governing the addition of motion, as established in Volume 1. For these substances, zero thermal motion corresponds to zero resistance, and with increasing temperature the resistance increases. This occurs due to the fact that the concentration of electrons (space units) in the temporary component of the conductor is constant for any particular amount of current. Therefore, current increases thermal motion in a certain proportion. Such substances are called conductors.
For other elements that have two dimensions of rotation in space, thermal motion, which, due to the finite diameters of moving electrons, requires two open dimensions, necessarily occurs in time. In this case, zero temperature corresponds to zero movement in time. Here, the resistance is initially high, but decreases as the temperature increases. Such substances are known as insulators or dielectrics.
The elements with the largest electrical displacement, those having only one dimension of spatial rotation and those closest to electropositive divisions, are able to follow a positive pattern and are conductors. Elements with lower electrical bias follow a modified pattern of movement over time, where resistance decreases from a high, but finite, level to zero temperature. Such substances with intermediate characteristics are called semiconductors.
Unfortunately, resistance measurements involve many factors that introduce uncertainty into the results. The purity of the sample is especially important due to the large difference between the resistances of conductors and dielectrics. Even a small amount of dielectric contamination can significantly change the resistance. Traditional theory has no explanation for the magnitude of this effect. If electrons are moving through the spaces between atoms, as the theory suggests, a few extra obstacles along the way shouldn't make a significant contribution to the resistance. But, as we assert, currents move in all the atoms of the conductor, including impure atoms, which increases the heat content of each atom in proportion to its resistance. The extremely high resistance of the dielectric results in a large contribution from each impure atom, and even a very small number of such atoms has a very significant effect.
Semiconductive element contaminants are less effective as contaminants, but can still have resistance thousands of times greater than that of conductive metals.
Also, resistance changes with heat and requires careful annealing before reliable measurements can be made. The adequacy of this method in many, if not most, definitions of resistance is questionable. For example, G. T. Meaden reports that this treatment reduces the resistance of beryllium by 50%, and that “preliminary work has been carried out on unannealed samples.” Other sources of uncertainty include changes in crystal structure or magnetic behavior that occur at different temperatures or pressures in different samples, or under different conditions, often accompanied by significant lag effects.
Since electrical resistance is the result of temperature motion, the energy of electron motion is in equilibrium with temperature energy. Therefore, the resistance is directly proportional to the effective thermal energy, that is, temperature. It follows from this that the increment of resistance per degree is constant for each (unchanged) substance; this value is determined by atomic characteristics. That's why, the curve representing the relationship of resistance to temperature as applied to a single atom is linear. The restriction to a straight line is a characteristic of the electron's relationships, and occurs due to the fact that the electron has only one unit of rotational displacement and, therefore, cannot shift to a multi-unit type of motion in the manner of complex atomic structures.
However, a similar change in the resistivity curve occurs if the coefficients that determine the resistivity are changed by rearrangement, such as a change in pressure. As P.W. expressed it Bridgman, when discussing his results, after a change of this nature has taken place, we are essentially dealing with a different substance. The curve of a modified atom is also a straight line, but it does not coincide with the curve of an unmodified atom. At the moment of transition to a new form, the resistance of an individual atom changes sharply to a ratio with another straight line.
ELECTRIC CHARGES
In the universe of motion, all physical entities and phenomena are movements, combinations of movements, or relationships between movements. It follows that developing the structure of a theory describing such a universe is mainly a matter of determining what motions and combinations of motions can exist under the conditions specified in the postulates. So far in our discussion of physical phenomena we have dealt only with translational motion, the movement of electrons in matter and the various influences of this motion, say, with the mechanical aspects of electricity. We will now turn our attention to electrical phenomena involving rotational motion.
As described in Volume 1, gravity is a three-dimensional rotationally distributed scalar motion. If we consider the general pattern of generating movements of greater complexity as a combination of different types of movement, it is natural to assume the possibility of imposing one-dimensional or two-dimensional scalar rotation on attracting objects to create phenomena of a more complex nature. However, upon analyzing the situation, we find that adding to the gravitational motion ordinary rotationally distributed motion in less than three dimensions would simply change the magnitude of the motion and would not lead to the appearance of any new types of phenomena.
However, there is a variation of the rotationally distributed pattern that we have not yet explored. Up to this point, three general types of simple motion (scalar motion of physical positions) have been considered: (1) translational motion; (2) linear vibration; and (3) rotation. Now we should realize the existence of a fourth type - vibratory-rotational movement, associated with rotation in the same way as linear vibration is associated with translational movement. Vector motion of this kind is common (an example is the movement of the hairspring in a watch), but is largely ignored by traditional scientific thought. It plays an important role in the basic movement of the universe.
At the atomic level, rotational vibration is a rotationally distributed scalar motion that undergoes continuous change from outside to inside and vice versa. As with linear vibration, to be constant, the measurement of scalar direction must be continuous and uniform. Therefore, like the photon of radiation, it must be a simple harmonious movement. As noted in the discussion of temperature motion, when a simple harmonic motion is added to an existing motion, it coincides with that motion (and therefore has no effect) in one of the scalar directions and has an effective magnitude in the other scalar direction. Each incremental motion must accommodate the rules for combining scalar motions established in Volume 1. On this basis, the effective scalar direction of self-sustaining rotational vibration must be outward, opposite the inward rotational motion with which it is associated. Such an addition of the scalar inward direction is not stable, but can be supported by external influence, as we will see later.
Scalar motion in the form of rotational vibration will be defined as charge. This type of one-dimensional rotation is an electric charge. In a universe of motion, any basic physical phenomenon, such as charge, is necessarily motion. And the only question that requires an answer by examining its place in the physical picture is the question: What kind of movement is it? We find that the observed electric charge has properties that theoretical development defines as one-dimensional rotation vibration; therefore, we can equate these two concepts.
It is interesting to note that traditional science, which for so long could not explain the origin and nature of electric charge, recognizes that it is scalar. For example, W. J. Duffin reports that the experiments he describes demonstrate that “charge can be defined as a unit number,” supporting the conclusion that “charge is a scalar quantity.”
However, in traditional physical thinking, electric charge is considered one of the fundamental physical entities, and its definition as motion will undoubtedly come as a surprise to many people. It should be emphasized that this is not a feature of the theory of the universe of motion. Regardless of our discoveries based on this theory, charge is necessarily motion, and based on the definitions working in traditional physics, a fact that is neglected because it does not agree with modern theory. The key factor in the situation is the definition of strength. We know that force is a property of movement, and not something of a fundamental nature that exists in itself. Understanding this position is essential for the development of the theory of charges.
For physics purposes, force is defined by Newton's second law of motion. This is the product of mass and acceleration, F = ma. Motion, the relation of space to time, is measured on an individual unit of mass basis as speed or rapidity, v (that is, each unit moves at its own speed), or on a collective basis as moment—mass times velocity, mv, formerly called by a more descriptive name “quantity of movement”. The rate of change in the magnitude of motion over time is dv/dt (acceleration, a) in the case of individual mass, and m dv/dt (force, ma) if it is measured collectively. Then force is defined as the rate of change of the magnitude of the total amount of motion with time; we can call it the “amount of acceleration.” From the definition it follows that force is a property of movement. It has the same status as any other property, not something that can exist as an autonomous entity.
The so-called “fundamental forces of nature,” the supposedly autonomous forces that are invoked to explain the origin of physical phenomena, are necessarily properties of the movements behind them; they cannot exist as independent entities. Every “fundamental force” must arise from a fundamental movement. This is a logical requirement for the definition of force, and it is valid regardless of the physical theory in the context of which the situation is considered.
Modern physical science is unable to determine the movements required by the definition of force. For example, a physical charge produces an electric force, but as determined by observation, it does not do so on its own initiative. There is no indication of any previous movement. Such an obvious contradiction to the definition of force is now dealt with by ignoring the requirements of the definition and considering electric force as an entity created in some indefinite way by a charge. Now the need for evasion of this kind is eliminated by defining the charge as a vibration of rotation. It is now clear that the reason for the absence of any evidence of motion involved in the generation of electric force is that charge itself is movement.
Therefore, electric charge is a one-dimensional analogue of the three-dimensional movement of an atom or particle, which we defined as mass. Space-time dimensions of mass – t³/s³. In one dimension this would be t/s. Rotational vibration is a motion similar to the rotation that makes up mass, but differs only in the periodic reversal of the scalar direction. It follows from this that the electric charge - a one-dimensional vibration of rotation - also has dimensions t/s. Measurements of other electrostatic quantities can be derived from charge quantities. Electric field strength- a quantity that plays an important role in many relationships involving electrical charges is the charge per unit area, t/s x 1/s² = t/s³. The product of field strength and distance, t/s³ x s = t/s², is the force, electric potential.
For the same reasons that apply to the creation of a gravitational field by mass, an electric charge is surrounded by a force field. However there is no interaction between mass and charge. Scalar movement. changing separation between A and B, can be represented in the reference frame either as the movement of AB (movement of A to B) or movement of BA (movement of B to A). Hence the AB and BA movements are not two separate movements; they are just two different ways of representing one and the same movements in the reference system. This means that scalar motion is a reciprocal process. It cannot take place unless objects A and B are capable of the same type of motion. Consequently, charges (one-dimensional motions) interact only with charges, and masses (three-dimensional motions) only with masses.
Linear motion of an electric charge, analogous to gravity, is subject to the same considerations as gravitational motion. However, as noted earlier, it is directed outward, not inward, and therefore cannot be directly added to the basic movement of vibration in the manner of rotational movement combinations. The outward motion limitation occurs because the outward sequence of the natural frame of reference, which is always present, extends to a full unit of outward velocity—the limiting quantity. Further outward movement can be added only after an inward component is introduced into the movement combination. Thus, charge can only exist as an addition to an atom or subatomic particle.
Although the scalar direction of rotational vibration constituting a charge is always outward, both positive (temporal) displacement and negative (spatial) displacement are possible, since the rotational speed can be either greater or less than unity, and rotational vibration must necessarily be opposite to the rotation . This raises a very awkward issue of terminology. From a logical point of view, rotational vibration with a spatial displacement should be called a negative charge, since it is the opposite of a positive rotation, and a rotational vibration with a time displacement should be called a positive charge. On this basis, the term “positive” always refers to a temporal displacement (low velocity), and the term “negative” always refers to a spatial displacement (high velocity). There would be some advantages to using these terms, but for the purposes of this paper it does not seem desirable to run the risk of introducing further confusion to explanations that already suffer from the inevitable use of unfamiliar terminology to express previously unconscious connections. Therefore, for present purposes we will follow the present usage and the charges of positive elements will be called positive. This means that the meaning of the terms “positive” and “negative” in connection with rotation is inversely related to charge.
In normal practice this should not present any particular difficulty. However, in the present discussion, some identification of the properties of the various movements included in the combinations under study is essential for the sake of clarity. To avoid confusion, the terms “positive” and “negative” will be accompanied by asterisks when used in reverse. On this basis, an electropositive element that rotates at low speed in all scalar directions receives a positive* charge - vibration of rotation at high speed. An electronegative element with high and low spin components can accept any kind of charge. However, generally the negative* charge is limited to the majority of negative elements of the class.
Many of the problems that arise when scalar motion is considered in the context of a fixed spatial reference frame arise from the fact that the reference frame has a property, a position, that scalar motion does not have. Other problems arise for the opposite reason: scalar motion has a property that the reference frame does not have. We called this property scalar direction, inward or outward.
Electric charges do not participate in the basic movements of atoms or particles, but are easily created in almost any kind of matter and can be separated from that matter with equal ease. In low-temperature environments such as the Earth's surface, electrical charge acts as a temporary addition to relatively permanent rotating systems of motion. This does not mean that the role of charges is not important. In fact, charges often have a greater influence on the outcome of physical events than the underlying motions of the atoms of matter involved in the action. But from a structural point of view, one should realize that charges come and go in the same way as the translational (kinetic or temperature) movements of an atom. As we'll see shortly, charges and temperature movements are largely interchangeable.
The simplest form of charged particle is created by adding one unit of one-dimensional rotational vibration to an electron or positron, which has only one unbalanced unit of one-dimensional rotational displacement. Since the effective spin of the electron is negative, it takes on a negative* charge. As stated in the description of subatomic particles in Volume 1, each uncharged electron has two vacant dimensions; that is, scalar dimensions in which there is no effective rotation. We also saw earlier that the basic units of matter - atoms and particles - are able to orient themselves according to their surroundings; that is, they adopt orientations consistent with the forces acting in the environment. When an electron is created in free space, for example from cosmic rays, it escapes the restrictions imposed by its spatial displacement (such as the inability to move in space) by orienting itself so that one of the vacant dimensions coincides with the dimension of the reference frame. Then it can occupy a fixed position in the natural frame of reference indefinitely. In the context of a stationary spatial reference frame, this uncharged electron, like a photon, is carried outward at the speed of light by the sequence of the natural reference frame.
If the electron enters a new environment and begins to be subjected to a new set of forces, it can reorient itself to adapt to the new situation. For example, when entering a conductive material, it encounters an environment in which it can move freely, due to the fact that the velocity shift in the combinations of motions that make up matter occurs primarily in time, and the connection between the spatial displacement of the electron and the temporal displacement of the atom is motion. Moreover, environmental factors favor such reorientation; that is, they favor an increase in speed above unity in a high-speed environment and a decrease in a low-speed environment. Consequently, the electron reorients the active displacement in the dimension of the reference frame. It is either a spatial or a temporal frame of reference, depending on whether the velocity is above or below unity, but the two frames are parallel. In fact, these are two segments of a single system, since they represent the same one-dimensional movement in two different speed regions.
If the speed is greater than unity, the representation of the variable quantity occurs in the temporal coordinate system, and the fixed position in the natural reference frame appears in the spatial coordinate system as the movement of electrons (electric current) at the speed of light. If the speed is less than one, the representations are reversed. It does not follow from this that the movement of electrons along a conductor occurs at such speeds. In this regard, the collection of electrons is similar to the collection of gas. Individual electrons move at high speeds, but in random directions. Only the resulting excess movement in the direction of current flow, electron drift as it is commonly called, acts as non-directional movement.
The idea of an “electron gas” is generally accepted in modern physics, but it is believed that “the simple theory leads to great difficulties when examined in more detail.” As noted, the prevailing assumption is that the electrons of the electron gas extracted from the atomic structures face many problems. There is also a direct contradiction with the specific heat values. “It was expected that electron gas would add an additional 3/2 R to the specific heat of metals,” but such an increase in specific heat was not experimentally detected.
The theory of the universe of motion offers answers to both of these problems. The electrons, the movement of which constitutes an electric current, are not removed from the atoms and are not subject to restrictions relating to their origin. The answer to the specific heat problem lies in the nature of electron motion. The movement of uncharged electrons (space units) in the matter of a conductor is equivalent to the movement of matter in the space of extensions. At a given temperature, atoms of matter have a certain speed relative to space. It doesn't matter whether it's continuation space or electronic space. Movement in electronic space (electron movement) is part of temperature movement, and the specific heat due to this movement is part of the specific heat of the atom, and not something separate.
If electron reorientation occurs in response to environmental factors, it cannot flip against forces associated with those factors. Therefore, in an uncharged state, electrons cannot leave the conductor. The only active property of an uncharged electron is spatial displacement, and the ratio of this space to the space of extensions is not motion. The combination of rotational movements (of an atom or particle) with a resulting displacement in space (velocity greater than one) can only move in time, as stated earlier. A combination of rotational motions with a resulting displacement in time (velocity less than one) can only move in space, since motion is the connection between space and time. But the unit of speed (natural zero or initial level) is unity in space and time. It follows that a combination of movements with a net velocity displacement of zero can move either in time or in space. Gaining a unit of negative* charge (actually positive in nature) on an electron that in its uncharged state has a unit of negative displacement reduces the resulting velocity displacement to zero and allows the electron to move freely either in space or time.
The creation of charged electrons in a conductor requires only the transfer of sufficient energy to an uncharged electron to bring the existing kinetic energy of the particle to the equivalent of a unit charge. If an electron is projected into space, an additional amount of energy is required to escape from the solid or liquid surface and overcome the pressure exerted by the surrounding gas. Charged electrons with energies below this level are confined to the conductor in the same way as uncharged electrons.
The energy required to create a charge and exit a conductor can be learned in many ways, each of which is a way of creating freely moving charged electrons. A convenient and widely used method provides the necessary energy through a potential difference. This increases the electrons' translational energy until it satisfies the requirement. In many applications, the required energy increment is minimized by projecting newly charged electrons into a vacuum rather than by requiring gas pressure to be overcome. Cathode rays, used in the creation of X-rays, are streams of charged electrons projected into a vacuum. The use of vacuum is also a characteristic of thermionic creation of charged electrons, in which the necessary energy is introduced into uncharged electrons through heat. In photovoltaic creation, energy is absorbed from radiation.
The existence of an electron as a freely charged unit is usually short-lived. Immediately after being created by one transfer of energy and emitted into space, it again collides with matter and enters into another transfer of energy, by which the charge is converted into thermal energy or radiation and the electron is returned to an uncharged state. In close proximity to an agent that creates charged electrons, both the creation of charges and the reverse process that converts them into other types of energy occur simultaneously. One of the main reasons for using a vacuum to create electrons is to minimize the loss of charges during the reverse process.
In space, charged electrons can be observed, that is, detected, in different ways, since, due to the presence of charges, they are influenced by electrical forces. This allows their movements to be controlled, and unlike its elusive uncharged counterpart, a charged electron is an observable entity that can be manipulated to create different kinds of physical effects.
It is impossible to isolate and study individual charged electrons in matter as we do in space, but we can become aware of the presence of particles by following the traces of freely moving charges in material aggregates. In addition to the special characteristics of charges, charged electrons in matter have the same properties as uncharged electrons. They move easily in good conductors and more difficult in bad ones. They move in response to potential differences. They are held in insulators - substances that do not have the necessary open dimensions to allow free movement of electrons, and so on. The activity of charged electrons in and around aggregates of matter is known as static electricity.