Development of science 50 60 years of the USSR. Science and education. Questions for independent work

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The weakening of totalitarian state control during the “thaw” and the general democratization of methods of managing culture significantly revived the creative process. Literature responded first and most vividly to the changing situation. The rehabilitation of some cultural figures repressed under Stalin was of great importance. The Soviet reader rediscovered many authors whose names were suppressed in the 30s and 40s: S. Yesenin, M. Tsvetaeva, A. Akhmatova re-entered the literature. A characteristic feature of the era was mass interest in poetry. At this time, a whole galaxy of remarkable young authors appeared, whose work constituted an era in Russian culture: the “sixties” poets E. A. Evtushenko, A. A. Voznesensky, B. A. Akhmadulina, R. I. Rozhdestvensky. Poetry evenings attracted huge audiences. The genre of art song, in which the author of the text, music and performer was, as a rule, one person, became widely popular. Official culture was wary of amateur songs; publishing a record or performing on radio or television was rare. The bards' works became widely available in tape recordings, which were distributed in the thousands throughout the country. The real rulers of the thoughts of youth in the 60s and 70s. steel: A. Galich, V. S. Vysotsky. The literature of the “sixties” writers is imbued with a special spirit of creative quest: D. A. Granin, V. P. Aksenov. A lot of interesting things have been created in the genre of science fiction literature. The works of the writer and scientist I. A. Efremov (“The Andromeda Nebula”) and the brothers A. N. and B. N. Strugatsky (“Roadside Picnic.”) are distinguished by their philosophical depth and unusually wide cultural range. In works dedicated to the Great Patriotic War, heroically sublime images are replaced by depictions of the severity of military everyday life. An important role in the literary life of the 60s. literary (thick) magazines played. In 1955, the first issue of the magazine “Youth” was published. Among the magazines, Novy Mir stands out, which, with the arrival of A. T. Tvardovsky as editor-in-chief, gained particular popularity among readers. It was in the “New World” in 1962, with the personal permission of N. S. Khrushchev, that A. I. Solzhenitsyn’s story “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” was published, in which for the first time literature touched upon the topic of the Stalinist Gulag.

However, complete freedom of creativity during the “thaw” years was far from complete. Relapses into Stalin's methods of treating cultural figures occurred periodically. Subjected to severe persecution Boris Leonidovich Pasternak (1890–1960). In 1955, he completed the main work of his life - the novel "Doctor Zhivago" , on which the writer worked for 10 years. The journals refused to accept the manuscript. And yet the novel was published. In 1958, Pasternak was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. The Soviet authorities immediately demanded that L. B. Pasternak abandon it. Pasternak was accused of being anti-national and contempt for the “common man.” He was expelled from the USSR Writers' Union. In the current situation, B. L. Pasternak had to refuse the award. In the 50s arose "samizdat" - this was the name of typewritten journals (for example, the magazine "Syntax" ), in which young writers and poets who had no hope of publication in official publications published their works. The appearance of “samizdat” became one of the manifestations of the dissident movement that was emerging among the intelligentsia in opposition to the Soviet state. The renewal processes also affected the fine arts. Realism is being interpreted by artists in a new way. The sixties were the time of formation of the so-called "severe style" in Soviet painting. Sculptors are working on creating memorial complexes dedicated to the Second World War. The theater is developing. New theater groups are being created. Among the new theaters that emerged during the “thaw”, it should be noted that it was founded in 1957. "Contemporary" And Taganka Theater (1964). Military themes still occupy a significant place in cinema. Films are being made dedicated to the problems of youth, as well as light romantic films. A school reform was carried out (compulsory 8-year education, along with a certificate of a working specialty, work experience for admission to a university for 2 years), and was later cancelled. Great successes in the late 50s and early 60s. achieved by Soviet scientists. Physics was at the forefront of the development of science. The world's first was launched in the USSR nuclear power plant (1954), the world's most powerful proton accelerator was built - synchrophasotron (1957). Under the guidance of a scientist and designer S. P. Koroleva rocketry was developed. In 1957, the world's first artificial satellite was launched, and on April 12, 1961. Yu. A. Gagarin made the first space flight in human history.

Spiritual and cultural life in the USSR in the 50s and 60s.

The spiritual and cultural life of society during the Khrushchev “thaw” was of a contradictory nature. On the one hand, the process of renewal and liberalization in politics could not but cause a revival of culture, a weakening of ideological control, and the rise of science and education. On the other hand, the general approach to the cultural sphere was distinguished by the previous desire to place it at the service of official ideology. Nevertheless, especially before the beginning of the 1960s, there was a spiritual revival of the creative intelligentsia. The spiritual center of the sixties was the magazine “New World,” headed by A. T. Tvardovsky. The Sovremennik Theater began operating in Moscow under the direction of O. N. Efremov. Many writers, artists, and scientists were able to visit abroad. Memoirs of Soviet military leaders began to be published: in previous years, none of the statesmen and military leaders even dared to write down their memories. In historical science, there was a departure from the dogmas of the “Short Course in the History of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)”, and the role of Stalin in the history of the Soviet state was revised. New magazines “Yunost”, “Moscow”, “Our Contemporary”, “Young Guard”, “History of the USSR”, “New and Contemporary History”, “Culture and Life”, almanacs and newspapers began to be published. New creative unions were created. In 1958, the CPSU Central Committee adopted a resolution “On correcting errors in the evaluation of the operas “The Great Friendship”, “Bogdan Khmelnitsky”, “With all my Heart”. A sign of the times was the rehabilitation of some cultural figures convicted under Stalin. Forbidden poems by S. A. Yesenin, D. A. Akhmatova, M. I. Tsvetaeva, stories by M. M. Zoshchenko and others were published. During the “thaw”, F. A. Abramov, V. P. first announced themselves. Astafiev, E. A. Evtushenko, R. I. Rozhdestvensky, A. A. Voznesensky, B. A. Akhmadulina, V. P. Aksenov and others. However, the inconsistency of cultural policy made itself felt. Some works of literature and art were received with hostility by N. S. Khrushchev, his advisers and a number of cultural figures (novels by V. D. Dudintsev “Not by Bread Alone”, B. L. Pasternak “Doctor Zhivago”, film by M. M. Khutsiev “ Zastava Ilyich”, etc.). The talented painters E. Belyutin, B. Zhutovsky, and the sculptor E. Neizvestny undeservedly fell into disgrace. There were significant achievements in the development of science and technology, especially in astronautics (the launch of an artificial satellite; the flight of Yu. A. Gagarin; successes in rocket science). A large international research center was created in Dubna - the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research. Much attention was paid to secondary and higher education: tuition fees at universities, technical schools and senior secondary schools were abolished; instead of seven years, universal compulsory eight-year education was introduced. The number of universities and scientific institutions has increased. The reform of the general education school that began in 1958 (eleven-year instead of ten-year) with an emphasis on industrial training and vocational training of students was not scientifically substantiated. In 1964 it was abandoned. In general, the spiritual emancipation of Soviet people during the period under review was not and could not be complete. In the early 1960s. There was a strengthening of ideological dictates in the field of literature and art, and intolerance towards dissent appeared. These years marked the beginning of the dissident movement.

Spiritual and cultural life in the USSR in the 50-60s.

After the end of the war, centers of culture were restored: schools, theaters, museums. Labor training was introduced in schools, and in 1958 compulsory eight-year education was introduced. The system of evening and correspondence education is expanding. The task of transition to secondary education was set. In the first decade after Stalin there were serious changes in spiritual life. The writer Ehrenburg called this period the “thaw.” In 1953, Pomerantsev’s article “on sincerity in literature” was published in the “new world”, where he first raised the question that writing honestly means not thinking about high and low readers. Ovechkina and Abramova appeared in the same magazine. In 65, Sholokhov became the Nobel Prize laureate. Tvardovsky writes the poem “Terkin in the Other World.” In the 50-60s. new names appeared in the literature. However, during these same years, persecution of the creative intelligentsia took place. In 57, Pasternak was expelled from the Writers' Union. In 58 he was forced to refuse the Nobel Prize. Science is making great progress; a number of modern physicists have been awarded the Nobel Prize: Prokhorov and Bossov - for formulating the foundations of quantum electronics; Landau - for his work on superfluidity and superconductivity. In Dubna in 1958, on the initiative of Kurchaty, an international research center was created that was engaged in nuclear research. In 49, the USSR became the owner of a nuclear bomb, and in 53, thanks to the research of Sakharov and other scientists, a hydrogen bomb. Tupolev creates the supersonic aircraft TU 144. Korolev creates practical astronautics. On April 12, 1963, Gagarin flew into space, in 63 - Tereshkova. And in 65, Leonov made the first spacewalk in the world. Priority for scientific developments was given to the interests of the military-industrial complex. New types of heroes appear in cinema, close and understandable to the viewer. The showing of Kalotozov’s film “The Cranes Are Flying” in Cannes was a triumph. World-class phenomena were: “Ivan’s Childhood” by Tarkovsky, “Clear Sky” by Chukhrai, “The Fate of a Man” by Bondarchuk. Vysotsky's work received universal recognition. The spiritual emancipation of the Soviet people covered only a narrow layer of the country's large cultural centers.

The reforms that began after Stalin's death created more favorable conditions for the development of culture. The exposure of the cult of personality at the 20th Party Congress in 1956, the return from prison and exile of hundreds of thousands of repressed people, including representatives of the creative intelligentsia, the weakening of the censorship press, the development of ties with foreign countries - all this expanded the spectrum of freedom, caused the population, especially young people, to utopian dreams of a better life. The combination of all these completely unique circumstances led to the movement of the sixties.

The time from the mid-50s to the mid-60s (from the appearance in 1954 of I. Ehrenburg’s story entitled “The Thaw” and until the opening of the trial of A. Sinyavsky and Yu. Daniel in February 1966) went down in the history of the USSR under the name "thaw", although the inertia of the processes unfolding at that time made itself felt until the beginning of the 70s.

The era of change in Soviet society coincided with a global sociocultural turn. In the second half of the 60s, a youth movement intensified, opposing itself to traditional forms of spirituality. For the first time, the historical results of the 20th century are being subjected to deep philosophical understanding and new artistic interpretation. The problem of the responsibility of “fathers” for the catastrophes of the century is increasingly being raised, and the fatal question of the relationship between “fathers and sons” is beginning to be heard in full force.

In Soviet society, the 20th Congress of the CPSU (February 1956), perceived by public opinion as a cleansing thunderstorm, became the milestone of sociocultural changes. The process of spiritual renewal in Soviet society began with a discussion of the responsibility of the “fathers” for the departure from the ideals of the October Revolution, which became the criterion for measuring the historical past of the country, as well as the moral position of the individual. This is how the confrontation between two social forces came into play: supporters of renewal, called anti-Stalinists, and their opponents, the Stalinists.

In fiction, contradictions within the framework of traditionalism are reflected in the confrontation between conservatives (F. Kochetov - the magazines "October", "Neva", "Literature and Life" and the adjacent magazines "Moscow", "Our Contemporary" and "Young Guard") and democrats (A. Tvardovsky - Yunost magazines). The magazine "New World", whose editor-in-chief was A.T. Tvardovsky, plays a special role in the spiritual culture of this time. It revealed to the reader the names of many major masters; it was in it that “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” by A. Solzhenitsyn was published.

Art exhibitions of Moscow neo-avant-garde artists and literary “samizdat” of the late fifties meant the emergence of values that condemned the canons of socialist realism.

Samizdat arose in the late 50s. This name was given to typewritten magazines created among creative youth who were opposed to the realities of Soviet reality. Samizdat included both the works of Soviet authors, which for one reason or another were rejected by publishing houses, as well as the literature of emigrants and poetry collections from the beginning of the century. Detective manuscripts were also passed around. The “thaw” samizdat began with lists of Tvardovsky’s poem “Terkin in the Other World,” written in 1954, but not permitted for publication and ended up in samizdat against the will of the author. The first samizdat magazine "Syntax", founded by the young poet A. Ginzburg, published the prohibited works of V. Nekrasov, B. Okudzhava, V. Shalamov, B. Akhmadulina. After Ginzburg’s arrest in 1960, the first dissidents (Vl. Bukovsky and others) picked up the samizdat baton.

The sociocultural origins of anti-socialist art already had their own basis. Characteristic in this sense is the example of the ideological evolution of B. Pasternak (M. Gorky considered him the best poet of socialist realism in the thirties), who published the novel “Doctor Zhivago” in the West, where the author critically rethinks the events of the October Revolution. Pasternak's expulsion from the Writers' Union drew a line in the relationship between the authorities and the artistic intelligentsia.

Cultural policy during the "thaw".N. Khrushchev clearly formulated the task and role of the intelligentsia in public life: to reflect the growing importance of the party in communist construction and to be its “machine gunners.” Control over the activities of the artistic intelligentsia was carried out through “orientation” meetings of the country’s leaders with leading cultural figures. N.S. himself Khrushchev, Minister of Culture E.A. Furtseva, the main ideologist of the party M.A. Suslov were not always able to make a qualified decision regarding the artistic value of the works they criticized. This led to unjustified attacks against cultural figures. Khrushchev spoke sharply against the poet A.A. Voznesensky, whose poems are distinguished by sophisticated imagery and rhythm, film directors M.M. Khutsiev, author of the films “Spring on Zarechnaya Street” and “Two Fedora”, M.I. Romm, who directed the feature film “Nine Days of One Year” in 1962.

In December 1962, during a visit to an exhibition of young artists in the Manege, Khrushchev scolded the “formalists” and “abstractionists,” among whom was the sculptor Ernst Neizvestny. All this created a nervous atmosphere among creative workers and contributed to the growth of distrust in the party’s policy in the field of culture.

The time of Khrushchev's "thaw" directly and indirectly divided and disoriented the creative intelligentsia: some overestimated the nature of superficial changes, others failed to see their "hidden subtext" (external influence), others were no longer able to express the fundamental interests of the victorious people, others were only capable of propaganda of the interests of the party and state apparatus. All this ultimately gave rise to works of art that were inadequate to reality and dominated by the ideals of democratic socialism.

In general, the “thaw” turned out to be not only short-lived, but also quite superficial, and did not create guarantees against a return to Stalinist practices. The warming was not sustainable, ideological relaxations were replaced by crude administrative interference, and by the mid-60s the “thaw” had faded away, but its significance went beyond brief bursts of cultural life.

General characteristics of Soviet culture during the period of "stagnation". For more than twenty years in Soviet history there was an era of “stagnation”, which in the field of culture was characterized by contradictory trends. On the one hand, the fruitful development of all spheres of scientific and artistic activity continued, and thanks to state funding, the material base of culture was strengthened. On the other hand, the ideological control of the country's leadership over the work of writers, poets, artists and composers has increased.

During this long period of time, serious changes occurred in all areas of social life:

thanks to scientific, technological and information progress, there was a split and reorientation of public consciousness, especially among young people, towards the traditional values of Russian culture and Western patterns of life;

the fuzzy disunity that was observed among the creative intelligentsia acquired quite clear outlines of the confrontation between two cultures - the official nomenklatura (part of the creative elite merged with the highest echelons of power) and the national democratic (the emergence and development of a new people's intelligentsia both in the Great Russian and in the Union republics, autonomies and regions).

It is worth noting the evolution of the forms of this confrontation - from sharp rejection to the establishment of a certain mutual agreement and interaction, which was dictated by the vital need to change the guidelines for internal and external development. Thus, the logic of the development of the subject of reflecting reality by official culture was associated with an attempt to maintain its dominant position in the public consciousness, which caused a transition from the obvious “varnishing” of the phenomena of surrounding life to the traditions of neo-Stalinism, thereby reviving the spiritual values of Russian culture through military-patriotic and cultural- historical themes (for example, the films “War and Peace” and “Andrei Rublev” directed by S. Bondarchuk and A. Tarkovsky).

Despite all the difficulties and contradictions, the literary and artistic life of the 70s was distinguished by diversity and richness. The ideals of humanism and democracy continued to live in literature and art, and the truth about the present and past of Soviet society was heard.

Acute social problems, especially of the Soviet countryside, were raised by writers V.G. Rasputin (stories “The Deadline”, “Live and Remember” and “Farewell to Matera”); V.A. Soloukhin (“Vladimir Country Roads”); V.P. Astafiev ("Theft" and "Tsar Fish"), F.A. Abramov (the trilogy "Pryasliny" and the novel "Home"), V.I. Belov (1 "Carpenter's Stories", novel "Eves"), B.A. Mozhaev ("Men and Women"). The content of most works did not leave anyone indifferent, because they dealt with universal human problems. The "village writers" not only recorded profound changes in the consciousness and morality of the village man, but also showed the more dramatic side of these shifts, which affected the change in the connection of generations, the transfer of spiritual experience of older generations to younger ones.

The work of national writers was very popular in the country and abroad: Kyrgyz Ch. Aitmatov (stories “Dzhamilya”, “Farewell Gyulsary”, “White Steamer”, “And the day lasts longer than a century”, etc.), Belarusian V. Bykov (stories “It Doesn’t Hurt the Dead”, “Kruglyansky Bridge”, “Sotnikov”, etc.), Georgian N. Dumbadze (stories “I, Grandmother, Iliko and Hilarion”, “I See the Sun”, novel “White Flags”), Estonian I Cross (novels “Between Three Crashes”, “The Imperial Madman”).

The 60s saw the work of the Russian poet N. Rubtsov, who passed away early (1971). His lyrics are characterized by an extremely simple style, melodious intonation, sincerity, and an inextricable connection with the Motherland.

Composer G.V. dedicated his musical works to the theme of the Motherland and its destinies. Sviridov ("Kursk Songs", "Pushkin's Wreath"), suites "Time, Forward", musical illustration of the story by A.S. Pushkin "Blizzard").

The 70s were the time of the rise of Soviet theatrical art. The Moscow Taganka Drama and Comedy Theater was especially popular among the progressive public. On its stage were staged “The Good Man from Szechwan” by B. Brecht, “Ten Days That Shook the World” by J. Reed, “And the Dawns Here Are Quiet...” by B. Vasilyeva, “The House on the Embankment” by Y. Trifonov, "The Master and Margarita" by M. Bulgakov. Among other groups, the Lenin Komsomol Theater, the Sovremennik Theater, the E. Theater stood out. Vakhtangov.

The Academic Bolshoi Theater in Moscow remained the center of musical life. He was glorified by the names of ballerinas G. Ulanova, M. Plisetskaya, E. Maksimova, choreographers Yu. Grigorovich, V. Vasilyev, singers G. Vishnevskaya, T. Sinyavskaya, B. Rudenko, I. Arkhipova, E. Obraztsova, singers Z. Sotkilava , Vl. Atlantova, E. Nesterenko.

In the 70s, the so-called “tape revolution” began. Songs of famous bards were recorded at home and passed from hand to hand. Along with the works of V. Vysotsky, B. Okudzhava and A. Galich, the works of Y. Vizbor, Y. Kim, A. Gorodnitsky, A. Dolsky, S. Nikitin, N. Matveeva, E. Bachurin, V. Dolina were very popular. Youth amateur song clubs arose everywhere, and their all-Union rallies began to be held. Pop vocal and instrumental ensembles (VIAs) increasingly won the sympathy of young people.

In general, artistic culture was able to pose a number of pressing problems to Soviet society and tried to solve these problems in its works.

1 Rudnev V.P. Dictionary of culture of the 20th century. Key concepts and concepts / V. P. Rudnev-M., 1997. 156 p.

2 Rudnev V.P. Dictionary of culture of the 20th century. Key concepts and concepts / V. P. Rudnev-M., 1997.15 p.

3 Kondakov I.V. Introduction to the history of Russian culture: textbook. Manual, /Kondakov I.V. - M., 1997. 65 p.

Kazan Electrical College of Communications

According to history

USSR culture

in the 60-80s"

Completed

Student of group 214

Gorbunov Vitaly

Kazan 2012

Related information.

The spiritual atmosphere of the second half of the 50s - the first half of the 60s. - atmosphere of “thaw”. The phenomenon of the “thaw” is multifaceted: it includes hopes for the renewal of socialism generated by the 20th Congress of the CPSU, and the desire for creative freedom, and the thirst to understand the country in which you live, and a romantic passion for Leninism, freed from Stalinist distortions, and attempts to go beyond the usual circle ideas and stereotypes, and the belief that one can and should think, live, write, create honestly, without waiting for instructions, without fear of shouts, without looking back at authorities. It is quite obvious that these sentiments and expectations caused alarm among the authorities. She did not want and could not give up leadership of culture, art and science, and continued to live by ideas about the need to manage the cultural process. After all, less than ten years have passed since the adoption of the famous decrees on issues of literature, music, and science.

During the “thaw”, S. A. Yesenin, A. A. Akhmatova, M. I. Tsvetaeva, I. E. Babel, B. A. Pilnyak, M. M. Zoshchenko, who were banned in previous years, returned to readers, it became possible study the works of V. E. Meyerhold and A. Ya. Tairov, listen to previously unheard works of D. D. Shostakovich, S. S. Prokofiev, A. I. Khachaturian and others. “Russian Forest” by L. M. Leonov was published , “Not by Bread Alone” by V.V. Dudintsev, “Seekers” by D.A. Granin, “Brothers and Sisters” by F.A. Abramov, “Terkin in the Next World” by A.T. Tvardovsky, “One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich” A. I. Solzhenitsyn. The magazine “New World”, headed by Tvardovsky, became a significant phenomenon in literary and political life. The Sovremennik Theater opened in Moscow, whose productions (Eternally Alive, The Naked King, etc.) aroused delight and controversy among the public. M.K. Kalatozov’s film “The Cranes Are Flying” was triumphantly shown at the Cannes Film Festival. There were also poetry evenings at the Polytechnic Museum, which brought together hundreds of admirers of the young E. A. Evtushenko, A. A. Voznesensky, R. I. Rozhdestvensky, songs by B. Sh. Okudzhava and V. S. Vysotsky. Creative freedom, meanwhile, had certain limits. In 1957, 1962 and 1963 At his now famous meetings with the intelligentsia, N. S. Khrushchev very unequivocally and even rudely reminded writers, poets, and artists of their place in society: “The Central Committee of the Party will seek from everyone... the unwavering adherence to the party line.” Censorship prohibited the publication of the novels “The Pit” and “Chevengur” by A. P. Platonov, “The Master and Margarita” by M. A. Bulgakov, “Life and Fate” by V. S. Grossman and others. The apogee of the “anti-thaw” was the persecution of B. L. Pasternak for the novel “Doctor Zhivago” published in the West, which was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature; the scandalous reprimand given by Khrushchev to abstract artists at an exhibition in the Manege.

Since the mid-60s. ideological pressure on culture intensified. The authorities supported official, ideologically consistent, but very imperfect artistic works. The persecution of those who violated the established boundaries in their creativity took on very harsh forms. In the mid-60s. A trial was organized against A. Sinyavsky and Y. Daniel, and the poet I. A. Brodsky, a future Nobel Prize laureate, was sentenced to deportation for “parasitism.” In the 70s A. I. Solzhenitsyn, V. P. Nekrasov, V. N. Voinovich, A. A. Tarkovsky, M. L. Rostropovich and others left the country. Fortunately, creative life continued. Writers V. P. Astafiev (“The Last Bow”, “The Shepherd and the Shepherdess”), Yu. V. Trifonov (“Another Life”, “House on the Embankment”, “The Old Man”), V. G. Rasputin (“Live and remember”, “Farewell to Matera”), F. A. Abramov (tetralogy about the Pryaslins), V. M. Shukshin (“I came to give you freedom”), V. V. Bykov (“Obelisk”, “Sotnikov”) , theater directors G. A. Tovstonogov, O. N. Efremov, A. V. Efros, Yu. P. Lyubimov, A. A. Goncharov, film directors S. F. Bondarchuk, L. I. Gaidai, S. I. Rostotsky, E. A. Ryazanov, L. A. Kulidzhanov created works of the highest artistic and moral level. The cultural process developed, overcoming the resistance of the system. A sign of the times was the emergence of a whole sector of non-conformist culture that denies official dogmas, the emergence of the so-called “samizdat”, the practice of publishing prohibited works abroad.

The development of science was equally contradictory. By the mid-50s. The country's leadership realized that in the context of the beginning of the scientific and technological revolution, support for science became a condition for maintaining the status of a great power for the USSR. By the mid-60s. spending on science increased 4 times, the number of scientists more than doubled. This trend continued in subsequent years: from 1960 to 1980, government spending on science increased a total of 6 times. The financial situation of scientists has significantly improved. New scientific centers were created in Novosibirsk, Sverdlovsk, Ufa, Irkutsk, Vladivostok, Krasnoyarsk, etc. In 1957, the world's first synchrophasotron was launched, the first atomic icebreaker was launched, and the first launch of an artificial Earth satellite was carried out. In 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin made the world's first manned flight into space. Research in the field of high and ultra-high energy physics (B. M. Pontecorvo), the chemistry of chain reactions (N. N. Semenov, Nobel Prize), the theory of superfluidity (L. D. Landau, Nobel Prize), and research on molecular quantum generators ( N. G. Basov, A. M. Prokhorov, Nobel Prize), cosmonautics (S. P. Korolev, V. N. Chelomei). The list goes on. In a number of areas, Soviet science occupied leading positions, overtaking the corresponding scientific schools in the West.

Unfortunately, negative trends were also growing. Applied research lagged significantly behind fundamental research. In some key areas (computer technology and information science, since the late 60s - space exploration, aircraft construction, genetics and microbiology, nuclear research, etc.), the lag of our science was significant. As for the social sciences, after some revival associated with the “thaw”, their development slowed down again. Ideological dictatorship was especially noticeable in this area. The fear of being suspected of dissent (dissidence) constrained the creative search of many humanities scholars.

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Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Federal Agency for Education

State educational institution

higher professional education

"Komsomolsk-on-Amur State

Technical University"

Institute of Ecology and Chemical Technology

Department of History and Archival Science

ABSTRACT

By discipline "Story»

Scientific and technicalachievements of the USSR at 50- 60s

Student of group 1ХТб-1 D.S. Zimenkov

Teacher D.V. Kiba

Introduction

2.4 Electronics

2.6 Electric power industry

2.7 Cars

2.8 Chemical technology

Conclusion

Introduction

I chose this topic as the final work in the discipline “National History” because it seemed to me very interesting and relevant at the present time. The scientific and technological revolution will never be stopped, because it is the engine of the world economy. If certain industries do not progress, humanity, in my opinion, simply will not exist. While the development of certain sciences continues, a person steps into the future and gives his children the opportunity to grow up in it and enjoy all its benefits.

In the 50s - 60s. The USSR achieves a number of achievements in a number of sectors: in the field of space, physics, chemistry, technology, the latest technologies and many others. But, despite these achievements, it continues to lag behind Western countries in its development...

The purpose of the work is to describe the achievements of the USSR in these years and compare them with the achievements of the USA in the same years.

1. Changes in science and technology policy

scientific technical achievement soviet

Incomparably more dangerous for the USSR was the apparent gradual lag behind the West in technology. Since the 1950s. Having entered the era of scientific and technological revolution, humanity found itself in a state of permanent and ever-accelerating technological revolutions. Initially, the Soviet leadership, by maximizing the concentration of resources in key areas of the scientific and technological revolution (missiles, space, nuclear energy), achieved impressive success. However, as the scientific and technological revolution expanded and its pace further accelerated, the socialist economy, built on the strict implementation of the orders of the center, showed its immunity to scientific and technological progress. Meanwhile, the 70s for Western countries became a qualitatively new stage of development - a transition from industrial to post-industrial, or information society. The role of the main resource was not land (as in an agrarian society), not factories (as in an industrial society), but information. With the advent of microprocessors, rapid computerization began, the development of high-tech industries began, and energy- and resource-saving technologies were introduced. The share of people employed in the service sector and especially in education grew rapidly and began to significantly exceed the share of people employed in the sphere of material production, where many traditional industries (mining industry, ferrous metallurgy, etc.) began, on the contrary, to collapse. In the USA, the share of funds for science and education in the total amount of capital investments increased from 22% in 1953 to 46.3% in 1979. In 1985, there were 1.5 million computers and more than 17 million personal computers in operation in the USA (i.e. that is, almost every fifth family had its own personal computer), 3/4 of Americans worked in the service sector, or, in Marxist terminology, in the non-productive sector.

In the West, under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution (STR) that began after World War II, there is a gigantic increase in strategic potential. This circumstance forces the Soviet leadership to rethink the role of scientific and technical activity in the country, to recognize the need for priority development of new directions in science and technology. After Stalin's death, many outdated schemes for the development of science were revised. Scientific and technological progress (STP) becomes a key element of the new scientific and technical strategy. In connection with the creation of a nuclear missile shield in the country, the authority of science and scientists is growing.

Scientific and technological revolution, as evidenced by world experience, required deep structural transformations in the entire national economy: a change in the place of science in the system of division of labor, the creation of new branches of knowledge and production, and most importantly - an initiative, independent worker.

In the Directives adopted at the 20th Congress of the CPSU on the sixth five-year plan for the development of the national economy of the USSR for 1956-1960, despite calls for the maximum use of scientific achievements in the national economy, the emphasis was still placed on the primary development of heavy industry, and the implementation of technical progress was limited industry: the development of electrification, increasing the technical level of mechanical engineering. Science, the main “tool” of scientific and technological revolution, was still assigned a secondary role. Its development went in breadth, not in depth: new scientific institutions were created, the network of the USSR Academy of Sciences expanded. From 1951 to 1957, over 30 new research institutes were created. Construction of the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences began in the Novosibirsk region.

Following the launch of the world's first nuclear power plant near Obninsk on June 27, 1954, the construction of even more powerful nuclear power plants began in different parts of the country - Novosibirsk, Voronezh, etc. In December 1957, the world's first nuclear icebreaker "Lenin" was launched " Since the second half of the 50s, nuclear submarines have been built in the Soviet Union, mass production of computer equipment has been developing, which opens the way to the main direction of scientific and technological progress - automation of production processes. In the field of atomic nuclear physics, Soviet science was able to occupy one of the leading places in the world. The USSR created the world's most powerful charged particle accelerator with an energy of up to 10 billion electron volts. For his great contribution to the study of the theory of chemical chain reactions, Academician N.N. Semenov was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1956. In the 50s and early 60s. Physicists P.A. were also awarded the Nobel Prize. Cherenkov, I.M. Frank and I.E. Tamm for the theory of Vavilov-Cherenkov radiation, academician L. D. Landau for the creation of the theory of superfluidity, N. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov (together with the American C. Townes) for the development of molecular quantum generators.

2. Achievements in various scientific fields

2.1 Advances in space

Throughout the sixties, despite continued domestic problems and international tensions, both the Soviet Union and the United States vigorously continued to develop space exploration programs. The history of their successes testifies to the tremendous achievements of modern science and technology. Space exploration promises innumerable economic benefits: it is necessary for the study and subsequent monitoring of weather conditions and precipitation; photographs taken from space can significantly speed up the work of geologists to discover new mineral deposits. As satellite launches increase for purely practical purposes such as studying meteorological conditions, improving communication systems, and creating systems for tracking aircraft flights and maritime navigation, increasingly close international cooperation in the field of space exploration will be required.

On April 12, 1961, after Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin successfully launched a rocket into low-Earth orbit and then returned to earth, the era of space exploration by human-controlled spacecraft began. The United States launched the first space shuttle with an astronaut on board, John Glenn Jr., on February 20, 1962. In June 1963, the Soviet Union exiled the first female cosmonaut into space. Subsequent Russian and American achievements in the field of space exploration included flights of spacecraft with two or more astronauts on board, “walks” in outer space, and “docking” of two spacecraft - manned and automatically controlled.

In parallel with the beginning of orbital spaceflight, the Soviet Union and the United States sent automatically controlled spacecraft to the Moon, as well as around the Moon and Venus. Both countries were able to send spacecraft to the Moon for a soft landing on its surface, and now, in all likelihood, we can expect to send a human-controlled spacecraft there.

In 1967, preparations for the next flights of human-controlled spacecraft were suspended due to two tragic events. On January 27, three American astronauts died when a fire suddenly broke out in the cabin of their spacecraft before its departure while it was still on the ground at Cape Kennedy Space Center in Florida. On April 24, a Russian cosmonaut died during his return to earth when his spacecraft became entangled in parachute lines during landing.

On January 27, 1967, the Soviet Union, the United States and sixty other states (China was not included) signed a treaty banning the use of outer space for military purposes. Under the terms of the treaty, it was prohibited to place nuclear weapons into low-Earth orbit, as well as to proclaim the sovereignty of any country over celestial bodies. Nevertheless, the important problem of prohibiting the proliferation of nuclear weapons and their use on the surface of the earth and in the atmosphere still remains.

In the spring of 1956, the world's first R-5M rocket with a nuclear charge was launched at the Kapustin Yar test site near Volgograd. This missile system played an important role in the creation of domestic strategic missile forces. Just over two years later, military missile units based on R-5 missiles began combat duty in Crimea for the first time. On December 17, 1959, a new branch of the Armed Forces was created in the USSR - the Strategic Missile Forces (Strategic Missile Forces).

The triumph of Soviet science and technology was the creation under the leadership of S.P. Korolev and M.V. Keldysh, the world's first artificial Earth satellite and its launch into orbit. October 4, 1957 The first artificial satellite was launched using “military money” allocated to the Commander-in-Chief of the Missile Forces M.I. Nedelin for the implementation of the strategic nuclear missile program.

For the project of landing troops on enemy territory through space, the marshal allowed Korolev to convert his standard combat intercontinental missile R-7 into the Vostok spacecraft. April 12, 1961 marked the beginning of a new space age.

2.2 Physics: radio radiation, ultrasound

After the war, intensive research began on the radio emission of the Sun and Moon. Scientists began to record signals from space on film, study and process them. Radio astronomy, as a result of the use of radar equipment, received the opportunity to develop on the basis of existing achievements in it, in particular in the field of antenna devices. Nowadays there are huge antenna devices (radio telescopes) with mirrors up to 75 m in diameter for receiving low-intensity beams of electromagnetic waves from stars at distances of about 30 billion light years. There are giant radio telescopes in the USSR, England, and the USA.

In May 1901, in the USSR, Soviet scientists carried out a radar survey of Venus to clarify the size of the solar system, study the physical properties of the planet’s surface, etc.

Speaking about radar as a method of detecting and determining the location of objects in the air, on land and on water through radio waves, it should be noted that the possibility of using them for underwater communications, direction finding and location is excluded due to their absorption in water. The only type of signal suitable for this purpose is ultrasound.

The use of ultrasound seems to complement radar means. On the other hand, radio-electronic devices play a significant role in ultrasound technology. In most cases, they solve the problem of generating high-frequency energy to excite mechanical vibrations in ultrasonic radiation sources and are indispensable for amplifying and recording weak high-frequency vibrations. Ultrasonic vibrations have now found wide application in many sectors of the national economy, as well as in scientific research.

Ultrasound is mechanical vibrations propagating in an elastic medium with a frequency that lies beyond the upper limit of audibility of the human ear, i.e. more than 20 kHz. Now it is technically possible to obtain billions of vibrations per second.

Ultrasonic technology is widely used in sonar, ultrasonic flaw detection, and measurement technology.

For the first time, the ultrasonic flaw detection method was developed in 1928-1929. Soviet physicist S.Ya. Sokolov, who then created various designs of ultrasonic flaw detectors, as well as an ultrasonic microscope that makes it possible to see objects in the thickness of a continuous opaque medium - in metal, rock, etc.

Several years ago, serial production of ultrasonic units was launched in the Soviet Union, USA, England, France and some other countries. For mechanical processing of products, mainly ultrasonic installations with magnetostrictive transducers operating at a frequency of 16-30 thousand hertz are used. In a number of installations (for example, when removing scale from the walls of steam boilers), piezoelectric transducers made of barium titanite are used to produce ultrasonic vibrations, creating large sound fields. The features and properties of this material were established by the Soviet scientist B.M. Vul in 1944-1945. Barium titanite emitters acquire high piezoelectric properties after exposure to a constant electric field. Nowadays, the use of so-called piezoceramics made of barium titanite in ultrasonic installations as electromechanical transducers (emitters) has acquired great practical importance. It should be noted that ceramic piezoelements can be made of any shape and size, which allows you to focus the emitted energy of mechanical vibrations in a small volume. Therefore, they are successfully used, for example, in an ultrasonic flaw detector.

By exposing certain chemicals to ultrasound, it is possible to accelerate reactions and even control the progress of various reactions (for example, the polymerization time of high-molecular compounds such as plastics). Ultrasound began to be used in biology, for example, to sterilize food, and also in medicine - to treat certain diseases.

Of particular interest is the ultrasonic microscope. When optical and electron microscopes prove powerless, the greater penetrating power of ultrasonic “rays” comes to the rescue. Ultrasonic vibrations of high frequency can propagate, like light rays, in the form of directed beams, obeying the laws of geometric optics. In the Soviet Union, methods of so-called “sound optics” were developed.

2.3 Semiconductor rectifiers

Based on a more in-depth study of semiconductors in the USSR and other countries, prototypes of alternating current rectifiers from Germany and similar semiconductor materials with an efficiency of up to 98-99% were created.

Semiconductor rectifiers are easy to use because they are miniature and rugged, do not require filament current, consume little energy, and are durable.

Semiconductors can also perform such an extremely important function as amplification of high-frequency radio oscillations, which is now carried out mainly with the help of electronic vacuum devices. Tube diodes, triodes, tetrodes and other electronic tubes are now being replaced by semiconductor (in particular, germanium) devices - transistors (crystalline triodes). The appearance of the transistor - a device that uses the semiconductor properties of germanium and silicon to generate and amplify electrical oscillations - stimulated the rapid development of semiconductor technology. In 1959, global production of transistors amounted to over 100 million units.

Thus, in the 20th century, especially after the First World War, completely new branches of technology arose and then received significant development, associated with various forms of using electricity, as well as with the use of electromagnetic vibrations, which profoundly changed all modern technology. Finally, the middle of the 20th century, thanks to the introduction of electronics into computer technology, was marked by the rapid development of mechanization of mental labor.

2.4 Electronics

To facilitate human labor, back in 1645, the French physicist Blaise Pascal first built a summing machine, modified in 1614 by the German scientist Leibniz.

In 1958, a semiconductor modeling machine, “MH-10,” was created in the Soviet Union, which did not have a single radio tube. The machine operates at high speed. The calculation of one version of the aircraft trajectory for a very short period is carried out by this machine in a few hours (for a computer it would take about a month of work).

A unique computer is the electrical integrator, installed in 1957 at the All-Union Oil and Gas Research Institute. This machine is used to calculate the processes occurring in oil fields during their development. For this purpose, so-called electrical reservoir models are compiled, and up to 30 thousand different values reflecting the natural factors of the reservoir can be “entered” into the machine. Using a machine, it is not difficult to select, for example, the most successful operating modes of oil wells.

In 1957--1958 In the USSR, universal discrete type machines “BESM-2” and “Ural” were created, as well as other machines that can perform up to several tens of thousands of arithmetic operations per second.

BESM-2 performs 8200 operations per second, with addition and subtraction taking 20-225 microseconds, and multiplication and division taking 240 microseconds. Data is entered into the machine from punched tape at a speed of 20 numbers per second.

Created in 1959, it has great advantages. the Setun machine, characterized by its small size, speed, and reliability.

A remarkable achievement of Soviet computer technology was the calculation of the flight of artificial Earth satellites and spacecraft in 1957-1961. Using electronic mathematical machines, complex mathematical calculations were made of the flight trajectories of satellites and spacecraft. Using a radio-electronic measuring complex, data on the location and speed of satellites as they flew along a pre-calculated orbit was processed. All such complex calculations became possible only thanks to the enormous speed with which arithmetic operations are performed by electronic mathematical machines.

The study of the limits of the possibility of replacing the function of human thinking with the work of machines is the most complex, controversial issue of the science known as cybernetics.

A remarkable example of the use of the latest computers in the field of “mechanization” of thinking, performing a number of mental operations depicted by formulas of mathematical logic, is the deciphering of the writing of the ancient Mayan people by Soviet scientists from the Institute of Mathematics of the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences in 1960-1961.

The effective use of high-frequency currents in an electric furnace became possible due to the successes of radio engineering after the First World War and, in particular, with the creation of powerful high-frequency machines and especially advanced tube generators. Soviet scientists V.II achieved great success in this area. Vologdin, N.D. Papaleksi, G.I. Babat and others. By the beginning of the 30s, as a result of advances in radio engineering, the basis for the production of high-frequency generators - machine and tube ones - was created. In 1935, Soviet scientists V.P. Vologdin and B.N. Romashov proposed a method of surface hardening of metals with high-frequency currents. In 1947, a research institute for the industrial application of high-frequency currents was organized in the Soviet Union.

In the years after the Second World War, a new direction appeared in industrial electrothermy, associated with the increasingly widespread use of heating dielectrics (as well as semiconductors) in an electric field - dielectric heating. In this case, the heated material is in the electric field of a capacitor, to which a high-frequency voltage is applied: currents in the material cause the release of heat in it and its heating. Such heating is used for high-speed drying of wood, paper, yarn, grain, for riveting wood, welding and pressing plastics, vulcanizing rubber, etc.

Drying wood with high-frequency currents is one of the first areas of industrial heating of materials in the high-frequency electric field of a capacitor. Research in this area was first carried out in the USSR in 1930-1934. P.S. Selyugin and almost simultaneously radio amateur A.I. Ioffe. But this method became widespread only later, in the late 40s. Nowadays, the process of drying wood in an electric high-frequency field is used for accelerated drying of various (especially short) lumber, mainly in combination with thermal drying, flue gases and steam (heat-high-frequency drying).

In the field of application of high-frequency currents, it is worth noting the prospects for the transition of transport to a system of contactless ground high-frequency electric transport. Interesting research in this area has been carried out since the late 30s by Soviet scientists. In 1943, Soviet researcher G.I. Babat built the first experimental installation of high-frequency transport.

2.6 Electric power industry

By 1956, a 400 kW power transmission line was created from the Volzhskaya HPP named after V.I. Lenin to Moscow.

In 1959, the high-voltage line Volzhskaya HPP named after V.I. was built. Lenin - Ural. At the end of December 1959, the first circuit of the world's largest electric highway, the Volgograd-Moscow power transmission line with a length of over 1 thousand km, was launched. The voltage of this line is 500 kW.

After 1965, the construction of power transmission lines of 700-750 kW is planned.

By the middle of the 20th century. Telemechanics has received its greatest development in energy systems, where control (and monitoring) of a complex of power plants, substations, and power lines is carried out from a central control center using telemechanical equipment. Telemechanization allows you to control sluice pumps at a distance, establish automatic connections between units or installations located at a distance from each other (for example, hydroelectric power station units), etc.

In the management of electrical networks, telemechanization, complementing automation, makes it possible to completely remove duty at substations or significantly reduce the number of duty personnel. Thus, in the USSR in 1949, automation and telemechanization of a whole cascade of Uzbekenergo hydroelectric power plants, and then some other hydroelectric power stations, were carried out.

In the USSR, during the post-war years, the use of telemechanics in the electric power industry increased sharply. If the power of regional hydroelectric power stations, where telecontrol was used in 1940, amounted to no more than 0.2% of the total installed capacity of hydroelectric power stations, and in 1946 - 1.1%, then in 1956 65% had already been transferred to telecontrol all regional power plants. By the end of 1958 in the Soviet Union, telemechanization was introduced in 29 power systems, including 40 hydroelectric power stations and 180 substations, then another 34 power systems and more than 50 hydroelectric power stations were covered by telemechanization means.

History of the technology of calculation procedures Electronic calculating machines are increasingly being used. The construction of powerful hydroelectric power stations, as strongholds of the newly created unified energy system of the USSR, will ensure the stable operation of this system (frequency regulation).

In our country, the tasks of complex automation of unified state power systems require the creation of various automatic control devices for power plants. At the Tsimlyanskaya HPP, during its improvement, a special complex device for group automatic control of the hydraulic unit was installed - the HPP auto-operator. This device (the calculating device determines how many units should operate at a given load).

In the soda pressure created by the dam, it turns on additional units and turns off underloaded units, i.e., it solves the problem of continuously selecting the optimal number of operating units. Its action can be controlled from afar, from the central control center of Rostovenergo. Similar devices are available at other hydroelectric power stations. The control of units at the Volzhskaya HPP named after Lenin is fully automated, the control panel of which has a so-called automatic group operator. This unit (with the help of telemechanical devices), in accordance with the load schedule specified by the dispatcher from Moscow, ensures the most economical mode of operation of the units. The Joint Dispatch Office of the Unified Energy System of the European Part of the USSR was organized in Moscow, coordinating the work of more than 15 energy systems (Moscow, Kuibyshev, Gorky, Sverdlovsk, etc.).

With the development of power plants and transmission lines throughout the 20th century. Electrical equipment is also developing.

The scientific foundations of the theory of electrical devices were laid back in the last century. In the 20th century on this basis, numerous devices of various systems of modern electromechanical regulators, automatic devices (relays, contactors, etc.), high voltage devices (switches, fuses, capacitors, etc.), some low voltage devices (switches, switches) were created and so on.).

Before the Great Patriotic War in the USSR, the maximum voltage in the power of oil tank circuit breakers was 220 kW and 2.5 million kW. In 1959, a powerful 500 kW oil circuit breaker was built at the Uralelectroapparat plant. In 1956, a powerful single-phase air circuit breaker was created in the Soviet Union. It is designed for 400 kW with a breaking (switching) power of 10-15 million kW and a short circuit current of 14 thousand kW. Its height reaches 12 m. This world's largest switch operates on the high-voltage line of the Volzhskaya HPP named after V.I. Lenin - Moscow.

The construction of high-voltage power lines has made it necessary to create electrical transformers designed for increasingly higher voltages. This was largely made possible thanks to the advent of electrical steel, as well as new insulating materials. In 1952, transformers were produced for a voltage of 400 kW. Currently, industrial enterprises both in the USSR and in other countries produce special high-voltage transformers with voltages of 110 - 220 and 425 kW.

Soviet enterprises create sophisticated high-voltage equipment: unique transformers, mercury and ion current rectifiers, phase converters, frequency converters, switches, protective and compensating devices for power transmission voltages up to 400 kW, etc. For the power systems of Siberia at the Leningrad plant "Electroapparat" in 1956 A sample of a current transformer for a higher voltage of 600 kW was created. In 1957 In the USSR, an autotransformer was produced for a higher voltage of 400 kW and a power of 167 thousand kW. In 1959 The Zaporozhye Transformer Plant manufactured a giant transformer with a capacity of 135 thousand V per 500 kW.

In 1926 For the first time in the USSR, a control center was created to coordinate the work of power plants integrated in the Moscow energy system.

With the development of automation and telemechanics, the central control center is equipped with the latest communications equipment and various automatic devices. In 1959 At the Volzhskaya Hydroelectric Power Station named after the XXII Congress of the CPSU, a complex technical structure was created - an open switchgear with a voltage of 500 thousand V. This is the main heavy-duty substation through which electric current began to flow to Moscow. Currently, for power plants and high-voltage substations, complete switchgears are increasingly being used - standard metal cabinets with high-voltage devices and other devices built into them.

Since the early 50s, semiconductors have also begun to be used in electrical equipment; in many countries, scientists have long been working on the creation of contactless regulators, since electrical connections using conventional switches, etc. spark and are destroyed quite quickly. In 1957 In the USSR, the first contactless regulators were created, in which the processes of closing and breaking the current occur without a mechanical break or connection of the circuit. Here the role of a switch is played by a magnetic amplifier or semiconductor. Activated even under the influence of a weak signal, such a regulator smoothly connects the voltage and gradually brings it to the specified value.

2.7 Cars

In 1950 There were more than 70 million cars in all countries. At the end of the 50s, according to foreign press data, approximately 100 million cars were in operation in all countries of the world, the total engine power of which was about 10 billion liters. With. In all countries in 1955. 13.5 million cars were produced, including over 10.4 million cars and 2.4 million trucks and buses.

The production and use of automobiles in the USSR became widespread. The first cars in the Soviet Union were built in 1924-1925; during the years of the first five-year plans, the automobile industry was created in the country. In 1937, more than 200 thousand cars were produced in the Soviet Union, in 1950 - 363 thousand. In 1957-1959. The USSR produced approximately half a million cars per year.

In 1957 Soviet automobile factories produced 495.4 thousand cars. The vast majority of these were trucks with a carrying capacity of up to 40 tons.

During the 20th century. The whole appearance of the car has changed. In recent years, the most successful body shape has been selected through aerodynamic studies, which are carried out in order to reduce the air resistance of the body by bringing its shape closer to an ideal streamliner. At the same time, much attention is paid to the artistic finishing of the car's appearance.

The improvement of the car made it possible to achieve high speeds: in 1909, the record speed of the car was 202 km/h; in 1935, a racing car with a special engine of 2,500 hp. With. reached a speed of 484 km/h, and in 1939 a racing car with two aircraft-type engines showed a speed of 595 km/h. The absolute world speed record for a racing car, set in 1947 in England, is 634.26 km/h.

In 1959 In the USSR, mass production of new high-class passenger cars began - “ZIL-1P” with a V-shaped engine of 220 hp. With. and a maximum speed of 170 km/h, as well as comfortable “Chaika” cars with a V-shaped engine of 195 hp. With. and a maximum speed of 160 km/h. By 1961, the production of the first Soviet minicar “Zaporozhets” was launched.

The Chaika car, the serial production of which the Gorky Automobile Plant began in mid-December 1958, is a seven-seater comfortable passenger car, the design of which reflects the latest level of development of automotive technology.

2.8 Chemical technology

When considering the history of the development of a number of new branches of production and technology related to the development of internal combustion engines and nuclear technology, one of their features can be emphasized - the need for new metals and alloys, new synthetic substances and materials. These requirements of new technology were met by the development of metallurgy and chemical technology.

Among the most important branches of the chemical industry, the development of the production of synthetic materials and products made from them is of particular importance. These materials and products are the most important factor in technical progress.

The chemical industry of the USSR was created anew during the industrialization of the country. Before the October Revolution, there was virtually no chemical industry in Russia. Currently, the USSR ranks second in the world in terms of chemical production.

In May 1958, the Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee adopted a special resolution “On the accelerated development of the chemical industry,” while highlighting the production of synthetic materials. The chemical industry was developing at a rapid pace during the Seven Year Plan.

From 1947 to 1957, world production of synthetic fibers increased from 80-90 thousand tons to 250 thousand tons. In 1956, world (without the USSR) production of artificial and synthetic fibers reached 2.5 million tons, and the production of artificial fibers in the USA in 1957 amounted to 800 thousand tons. In the Soviet Union, the production of artificial fibers (started in 1931) from 1940 to 1956 increased 12 times. The volume of production of chemical fibers in the USSR amounted to almost 180 thousand tons in 1959, and the rate of production of artificial fiber in our country is constantly growing. In just five years, from 1955 to 1960, the production of synthetic fibers doubled.

Since the late 50s, a characteristic feature in the creation of new types of equipment for the production of various chemical fibers has been the replacement of various periodically operating devices with continuously operating machines and devices, although this kind of transition faces great difficulties due to the complexity of the technology and the need for high precision control and measurement equipment.

Along with artificial and synthetic fibers, it is worth noting the development of the production of such synthetic high-molecular compounds as all kinds of synthetic resins, from which unbreakable organic glass and various plastics can be made. Plastics are used in many sectors of the national economy and are especially widely used in a number of branches of mechanical engineering (in particular, in the aircraft and automobile industries).

By 1959, the USSR had developed a method for producing polyethylene at medium pressures with a cheap catalyst. Now the problem of polyethylene synthesis has been solved.

Conclusion

In general, organizational measures of the mid-50s. contributed to the acceleration of scientific and technological progress. Over the decade, spending on science has almost quadrupled. As a result, in the 50s and 60s, 80% of all scientific discoveries of the USSR were made in all post-war years. And the development of scientific and technical thought in the country was marked by a number of major world-class achievements.

There were noticeable achievements in various scientific fields: physics, chemistry, biology, etc.

The USSR missed a new scientific, technical and civilizational stage of development. The Soviet leadership continued to develop industries inherent in an industrial society. As a result, the country came out on top in the world in the production of iron, steel, coal, oil, gas, tractors and mineral fertilizers. The overwhelming majority of the active population worked in the sphere of material production, while up to 40% of workers in industry, 60% in construction and 70% in agriculture were engaged in manual labor. The number of computers in the USSR did not exceed several tens of thousands; there was no talk of the mass distribution of personal computers. The share of expenditures on social and cultural needs since the mid-60s. was declining. By 1985, the share of spending on education had fallen below 1940 levels.

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