2nd ed., rev. and additional - M.: 2005. - 528 p.
The textbook has been prepared in accordance with the new physiology program for universities physical culture and the requirements of the State Standard of Higher Professional Education. The textbook is intended for undergraduates, graduate students, researchers, teachers, trainers and doctors working in the field of physical education.
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CONTENT
Preface........................................................ ................................................3
Part I GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY.................................................... ....................................7
1. Introduction. History of physiology........................................................ ................7
1.1. The subject of physiology, its connection with other sciences and its significance for physical culture and sports...........7
1.2. Physiological research methods...................................................8
1.3. Short story physiology........................................................ ..........9
2. General principles of physiology and its basic concepts.................................10
2.1. Main functional characteristics of excitable tissues.....11
2.2. Nervous and humoral regulation of functions.................................................12
2.3. Reflex mechanism of activity nervous system..............13
2.4. Homeostasis........................................................ .......................................14
2.5. The occurrence of excitation and its implementation ..................................... 15
3. Nervous system.................................................... ........................................18
3.1. Main functions of the central nervous system......................................................... ................18
3.2. Basic functions and interactions of neurons.........................19
3.3. Peculiarities of activity of nerve centers...................................22
3.4. Coordination of the activities of the central nervous system................................................... ....26
3.5. Functions of the spinal cord and subcortical parts of the brain..................................................30
3.6. Autonomic nervous system.................................................................... .........35
3.7. Limbic system................................................... ......................38
3.8. Functions of the cerebral cortex....................................................39
4. Higher nervous activity.................................................... ...................44
4. 1. Conditions of formation and types of conditioned reflexes.........44
4.2. External and internal inhibition of conditioned reflexes......47
4.3. Dynamic stereotype......................................................... ................48
4.4.Types of higher nervous activity, I and II signaling system.. 48
5. Neuromuscular system.................................................. ........................50
5.1. Functional organization of skeletal muscles...................................50
5.2. Mechanisms of contraction and relaxation of muscle fiber......52
5.3. Single and tetanic contraction. Electromyogram.........54
5.4. Morphofunctional bases of muscle strength...................................57
5.5. Modes of muscle operation......................................................... ...................60
5.6. Energy of muscle contraction...................................................62
6. Voluntary movements.................................................... ...........................64
6.1. Basic principles of movement organization...................................64
6.2. The role of various parts of the central nervous system in the regulation of postural-tonic reactions....................................67
6.3. The role of various parts of the central nervous system in the regulation of movements.................................70
6.4. Descending motor systems................................................................... .....73
7. Sensory systems................................................... ...................................75
7.1. General plan for the organization and functions of sensory systems.................................75
7.2. Classification and mechanisms of receptor excitation................................76
7.3. Properties of receptors................................................... ......................77
7.4. Encoding information................................................................ .............79
7.5. Visual sensory system................................................................... .........80
7.6. Auditory sensory system................................................................... ............85
7.7. Vestibular sensory system.................................................................... ...87
7.8. Motor sensory system................................................................... .....90
7.9. Sensory systems of the skin, internal organs, taste and smell....................................93
7.10. Processing, interaction and meaning of sensory information....................................95
8. Blood........................................................ ....................................99
8.1. Composition, volume and functions of blood.................................................... ......100
8.2. Formed elements of blood................................................................... .........101
8.3. Physicochemical characteristics blood plasma................................... 105
8.4. Blood coagulation and transfusion.................................................................... 107
8.5. Regulation of the blood system................................................................... .............. 110
9. Blood circulation................................................... ........................... 111
9.1. The heart and its physiological properties.................................................... 111
9.2. Movement of blood through vessels (hemodynamics)................................... 116
9.3. Regulation of the cardiovascular system.................................................... 120
10. Breathing................................................... ....................................123
10.1. External respiration......................................................... .......................124
10.2. Exchange of gases in the lungs and their transfer by blood.................................... 126
10.3. Breathing regulation................................................................ ...................129
11. Digestion................................................... ........................... 131
11.1. general characteristics digestive processes................... 131
11.2. Digestion in various parts of the gastrointestinal tract.................................................... 133
11.3. Absorption of food digestion products.................................... 139
12. Metabolism and energy................................................... ....................... 140
12.1. Protein metabolism........................................................ ........................... 140
12.2. Carbohydrate metabolism................................................... ........................... 141
12.3. Lipid metabolism................................................... ........................... 142
12.4. Exchange of water and mineral salts.................................................... 143
12.5. Energy exchange................................................... ........................... 145
12.6. Regulation of metabolism and energy.................................................... 147
13. Selection...................................:......... .................................... 149
13.1. General characteristics of excretory processes.................................... 149
13.2. Kidneys and their functions.................................................. .................... 149
13.3. The process of urine formation and its regulation.................................... 151
13.4. Homeostatic renal function.................................................................... 153
13.5. Urinary excretion and urination.................................................... 154
13.6. Sweating........................................................ ...........................154
14. Heat exchange.................................................... ........................... 156
14.1. Human body temperature and isothermia.................................................. 156
14.2. Mechanisms of heat generation................................................... ....157
14.3. Heat transfer mechanisms................................................................... .............158
14.4. Heat exchange regulation................................................... ...............159
15. Internal secretion.................................................... ........................160
15.1. General characteristics of the endocrine system.................................... 160
15.2. Functions of the endocrine glands............................................................163
15.3. Changes in endocrine functions under various conditions.................................................173
Part II SPORTS PHYSIOLOGY.................................................... ...................178
Section GENERAL SPORTS PHYSIOLOGY.................................................... .........178
1. Sports physiology - an educational and scientific discipline................179
1.1. Sports physiology, its content and objectives....................................179
1.2. Department of Physiology, St. Petersburg State Academy of Physical Culture, Kim. P.F.Lesgafta and her role in the formation and development of sports physiology.181
1.3. State and prospects for the development of sports physiology.....185
2. Adaptation to physical activity and reserve capabilities of the body.................................. 188
2.1. Dynamics of body functions during adaptation and its stages..........189
2.2. Physiological features of adaptation to physical activity............................................193
2.3. Urgent and long-term adaptation to physical activity.....195
2.4. Functional adaptation system................................................... 198
2.5. The concept of physiological reserves of the body, their characteristics and classification.........201
3. Functional changes in the body during physical activity.......203
3.1. Changes in the functions of various organs and systems of the body.... 203
3.2. Functional shifts under constant power loads.....205
3.3. Functional shifts under variable power loads.... 206
3.4. Applied significance of functional changes for assessing the performance of athletes....208
4. Physiological characteristics of the body’s states during sports activity................................209
4.1. The role of emotions in sports activities...................................209
4.2. Pre-launch states......................................................... .............213
4.3. Warm-up and exercise................................................................... ...............215
4.4. Steady state during cyclic exercises......217
4.5. Special conditions of the body during acyclic, static and variable power exercises 218
5. Physical performance of an athlete....................................................219
5.1. The concept of physical performance and methodological approaches to its definition........220
5.2. Principles and methods of testing physical performance....................................221
5.3. The connection between physical performance and the direction of the training process in sports..227
5.4. Physical performance reserves...................................................228
6. Physiological bases of fatigue in athletes....................................233
6.1. Definition and physiological mechanisms of fatigue development....................................233
6.2. Fatigue factors and state of body functions.................................236
6.3. Features of fatigue during various types of physical activity....................................239
6.4. Pre-fatigue, chronic fatigue and overwork.........241
7. Physiological characteristics of recovery processes........243
7.1. General characteristics of recovery processes......................244
7.2. Physiological mechanisms of recovery processes......246
7.3. Physiological patterns of recovery processes...................................248
7.4. Physiological measures to increase the efficiency of recovery...................250
Section II PRIVATE SPORTS PHYSIOLOGY.................................................... .......253
8. Physiological classification and characteristics of physical exercises...................253
8.1. Various criteria for classifying exercises...................................253
8.2. Modern classification of physical exercises...................254
8.3. Physiological characteristics of sports poses and static loads................256
8.4. Physiological characteristics of standard cyclic and acyclic movements.....259
8.5. Physiological characteristics of non-standard movements......263
9. Physiological mechanisms and patterns of development of physical qualities.................................266
9.1. Forms of manifestation, mechanisms of force development..........266
9.2. Forms of manifestation, mechanisms and reserves for the development of speed.......270
9.3. Forms of manifestation, mechanisms and reserves for the development of endurance....................................273
9.4. The concept of dexterity and flexibility; mechanisms and patterns of their development...................278
10. Physiological mechanisms and patterns of formation of motor skills.......279
10.1. Motor skills, skills and methods of their research........279
110.2. Physiological mechanisms of motor skills formation....................................280
10.3. Physiological patterns and stages of motor skills formation.........283
10.4. Physiological basis for improving motor skills....................................289
11. Physiological basis for the development of fitness................................292
11.1. Physiological characteristics of training and state of fitness......292
11.2. Testing the functional readiness of athletes at rest....................................294
11.3. Testing the functional readiness of athletes under standard and maximum loads.297
11.4. Physiological characteristics of overtraining and overexertion......... 300
12. Sports performance in special environmental conditions.......303
12.1. The influence of air temperature and humidity on sports performance.........303
12.2. Sports performance under conditions of altered barometric pressure..305
12.3. Sports performance when changing climatic conditions........309
12.4. Physiological changes in the body during swimming.........310
13. Physiological foundations of women’s sports training.................................313
13.1. Morphofunctional characteristics of the female body.......313
13.2. Changes in body functions during training................320
13.3. The influence of the biological cycle on the performance of women.... 324
13.4. Individualization of the training process taking into account the phases of the biological cycle......327
14. Physiological and genetic features of sports selection...................329
14.1. Physiological-genetic approach to issues of sports selection....................................330
14.2. Hereditary influences on the morphofunctional characteristics and physical qualities of a person.332
14.3. Taking into account the physiological and genetic characteristics of a person in sports selection.................................336
14.4. The significance of genetically adequate and inadequate choice of sports specialization, style of competitive activity and sensorimotor dominance.343
14.5. Using genetic markers to find high- and fast-training athletes.....347
15. Physiological foundations of health-improving physical culture......350
15.1. The role of physical culture in modern life.....350
15.2. Hypokinesia, physical inactivity and their impact on the human body..................................353
15.3. Neuropsychic stress, monotony of activity and their impact on the human body.....355
15.4. The main forms of health-improving physical culture and their influence on the functional state of the body.358
Part III AGE PHYSIOLOGY.................................................... .......364
1. General physiological patterns of growth and development of the human body...........364
1.1. Periodization and heterochronicity of development....................................364
1.2. Sensitive periods................................................... ...................366
1.3. The influence of heredity and environment on the development of the organism.................................... 369
1.4. Acceleration epochal and individual, biological and passport age......371
2. Physiological characteristics of the body of preschool and younger children school age and their adaptation to physical activity 375
2.1. Development of the central nervous system, higher nervous activity and sensory systems...375
2.2. Physical development and musculoskeletal system...................382
2.3. Peculiarities of blood, circulation and respiration........................................383
2.4. Features of digestion, metabolism and energy...................386
2.5. Features of thermoregulation, processes of secretion and activity of the endocrine glands.....388
2.6. Physiological features of adaptation of children of preschool and primary school age to physical activity.391
3. Physiological characteristics of the body of children of middle and high school age and their adaptation to physical activity..411
3.1. Development of the central nervous system, higher nervous activity and sensory systems...411
3.2. Physical development and musculoskeletal system......416
3.3. Features of blood, blood circulation, breathing....................................419
3.4. Features of digestion, excretion and endocrine system 422
3.5. Features of thermoregulation, metabolism and energy.........427
3.6. Physiological features of adaptation of children of middle and high school age to physical activity...429
4. Physiological features of a physical education lesson at school.. 448
4.1. Physiological justification for rationing physical activity for school age children........449
4.2. Changes in the functions of the body of schoolchildren during a physical education lesson.................................451
4.3. The influence of physical education classes on the physical, functional development, performance of schoolchildren and their health.453
4.4. Physiological and pedagogical control over physical education classes and physiological criteria for restoring the body of schoolchildren.460
5. Physiological characteristics of the body of mature and elderly people and their adaptation to physical activity........465
5.1. Aging, life expectancy, adaptive reactions and reactivity of the body....................................465
5.2. Age-related features of the musculoskeletal system, autonomic and sensory systems....................................468
5.3. Age-related features of regulatory systems...................................473
5.4. Physiological features of adaptation of mature and elderly people to physical activity......476
6. Physiological features of information processing in athletes of different ages....................................487
6.1. The importance of information processing processes for sports and their age-related characteristics....................................487
6.2. Physiological foundations of the processes of perception, decision-making and programming of response actions....489
6.3. Speed and efficiency of tactical thinking. Brain Bandwidth......492
6.4. Noise immunity of athletes, its age characteristics... 495
7. Functional asymmetries of athletes of different ages........................496
7.1. Motor asymmetries in humans, their age-related characteristics.. 496
7.2. Sensory and mental asymmetries. Individual asymmetry profile................498
7.3. Manifestation of functional asymmetry in athletes.........501
7.4. Physiological bases of training process management taking into account functional asymmetry.....505
8. Physiological bases of individual typological characteristics of athletes and their development in ontogenesis.507
8.1. Individual typological characteristics of a person......508
8.2. Development of typological features of ontogenesis......510
8.3. Individual typological characteristics of athletes and their considerations in the training process......512
8.4. Individual typological features of biorhythms and their impact on human performance..515
Conclusion.....520
The textbook was prepared in accordance with the new program in physiology for universities of physical education and the requirements of the State Standard of Higher Professional Education.
For undergraduates, graduate students, researchers, teachers, trainers and doctors working in the field of physical education.
PREFACE...... 3 Part I. GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY...... 8 1. Introduction. History of physiology...... 8 1. 1. The subject of physiology, its connection with other sciences and significance for physical culture and sports...... 8 1. 2. Methods of physiological research...... 9 1 3. Brief history of physiology...... 10 2. General principles of physiology and its basic concepts...... 12 2. 1. Basic functional characteristics of excitable tissues...... 12 2. 2. Nervous and humoral regulation of functions...... 14 2. 3. Reflex mechanism of the nervous system...... 15 2. 4. Homeostasis...... 16 2. 5. The occurrence of excitation and its implementation.. .... 17 3. Nervous system...... 21 3. 1. Basic functions of the central nervous system...... 21 3. 2. Basic functions and interactions of neurons...... 21 3. 3. Features of the activity of nerve centers...... 25 3. 4. Coordination of the activity of the central nervous system...... 29 3. 5. Functions of the spinal cord and subcortical parts of the brain...... 33 3. 6. Autonomic nervous system...... 39 3. 7. Limbic system...... 43 3. 8. Functions of the cerebral cortex...... 43 4. Higher nervous activity...... 49 4. 1. Conditions of formation and types of conditioned reflexes...... 49 4. 2. External and internal inhibition of conditioned reflexes...... 52 4. 3. Dynamic stereotype...... 52 4. 4. Types higher nervous activity, first and second signaling system...... 53 5. Neuromuscular apparatus...... 55 5. 1. Functional organization of skeletal muscles...... 55 5. 2. Mechanisms of contraction and relaxation of muscle fiber...... 57 5. 3. Single and tetanic contraction. Electromyogram...... 60 5. 4. Morphofunctional bases of muscle strength...... 63 5. 5. Modes of muscle operation...... 67 5. 6. Energy of muscle contraction...... 68 6. Voluntary movements...... 71 6. 1. Basic principles of movement organization...... 71 6. 2. The role of various parts of the central nervous system in the regulation of postural-tonic reactions...... 75 6. 3. The role of various parts of the central nervous system in the regulation of movements...... 77 6. 4. Descending motor systems...... 81 7. Sensory systems...... 83 7. 1. General plan of organization and functions sensory systems...... 83 7. 2. Classification and mechanisms of excitation of receptors...... 84 7. 3. Properties of receptors...... 86 7. 4. Coding of information...... 87 7. 5. Visual sensory system...... 88 7. 6. Auditory sensory system...... 93 7. 7. Vestibular sensory system...... 96 7. 8. Motor sensory system ...... 99 7. 9. Sensory systems of the skin, internal organs, taste and smell. ..... 102 7. 10. Processing, interaction and significance of sensory information...... 105 8. Blood...... 109 8. 1. Composition, volume and functions of blood...... 110 8. 2. Formed elements of blood...... 112 8. 3. Physico-chemical properties of blood plasma...... 116 8. 4. Blood coagulation and transfusion...... 118 8. 5 Regulation of the blood system...... 121 9. Blood circulation...... 123 9. 1. The heart and its physiological properties...... 123 9. 2. Blood movement through the vessels (hemodynamics)... .... 128 9. 3. Regulation of the cardiovascular system...... 132 10. Breathing...... 136 10. 1. External respiration...... 136 10. 2. Exchange of gases in the lungs and their transport by blood...... 139 10. 3. Regulation of breathing...... 143 11. Digestion...... 145 11. 1. General characteristics of digestive processes...... 145 11. 2. Digestion in various departments gastrointestinal tract ...... 147 11. 3. Absorption of food digestion products...... 153 12. Metabolism and energy...... 155 12. 1. Metabolism of proteins...... 155 12. 2. Metabolism of carbohydrates...... 156 12. 3. Metabolism of lipids...... 157 12. 4. Exchange of water and mineral salts...... 159 12. 5. Exchange of energy.... .. 160 12. 6. Regulation of metabolism and energy...... 163 13. Excretion...... 165 13. 1. General characteristics of excretory processes...... 165 13. 2. Kidneys and their functions...... 165 13. 3. The process of urine formation and its regulation...... 168 13. 4. Homeostatic function of the kidneys...... 170 13. 5. Urinary excretion and urination.... .. 170 13. 6. Sweating...... 171 14. Heat exchange...... 173 14. 1. Human body temperature and isothermia...... 173 14. 2. Mechanisms of heat generation.. .... 174 14. 3. Mechanisms of heat transfer...... 176 14. 4. Regulation of heat exchange...... 177 15. Internal secretion...... 178 15. 1. General characteristics of the endocrine system ...... 178 15. 2. Functions of the endocrine glands...... 181 15. 3. Changes in endocrine functions under various conditions...... 192 Part II. SPORTS PHYSIOLOGY...... 198 Section I. GENERAL SPORTS PHYSIOLOGY...... 198 1. Sports physiology - an educational and scientific discipline...... 199 1. 1. Sports physiology, its content and objectives. ..... 199 1. 2. The Department of Physiology and its role in the formation and development of sports physiology...... 201 1. 3. State and prospects for the development of sports physiology....... 206 2. Adaptation to physical loads and reserve capabilities of the body...... 210 2. 1. Dynamics of body functions during adaptation and its stages...... 211 2. 2. Physiological features of adaptation to physical activity...... 215 2. 3. Urgent and long-term adaptation to physical activity...... 217 2. 4. Functional system of adaptation...... 221 2. 5. The concept of physiological reserves of the body...... 224 3. Functional states athletes...... 226 3. 1. General characteristics of functional states...... 226 3. 2. Physiological patterns of development of functional states...... 229 3. 3. Types of functional states.... .. 231 4. Functional changes in the body during physical activity...... 237 4. 1. Changes in the functions of various organs and systems of the body...... 237 4. 2. Functional changes under constant power loads... ... 240 4. 3. Functional changes under loads of variable power...... 241 4. 4. Applied significance of functional changes for assessing the performance of athletes.. .... 243 5. Physiological characteristics of the body's states during sports activity ...... 244 5. 1. The role of emotions during sports activity ...... 244 5. 2. Pre-start states ...... 247 5. 3. Warm-up and warm-up...... 250 5. 4. Steady state during cyclic exercises...... 252 5. 5. Special states of the body during acyclic, static and variable power exercises..... 253 6. Physical performance of an athlete...... 254 6. 1. The concept of physical performance and methodological approaches to its determination...... 255 6. 2. Principles and methods of testing physical performance..... 257 6. 3. The connection between physical performance and the direction of the training process in sports...... 262 6. 4. Reserves of physical performance...... 264 7. Physiological bases of fatigue in athletes...... 269 7 1. Definition and physiological mechanisms of the development of fatigue...... 269 7. 2. Factors of fatigue and the state of body functions...... 273 7. 3. Features of fatigue during various types of physical activity...... 275 7. 4. Pre-fatigue, chronic fatigue and overwork...... 278 8. Physiological characteristics of recovery processes...... 281 8. 1. General characteristics of recovery processes...... 281 8. 2. Physiological mechanisms of recovery processes...... 283 8. 3. Physiological patterns of recovery processes...... 285 8. 4. Physiological measures to increase the efficiency of recovery...... 288 Section II. PRIVATE SPORTS PHYSIOLOGY...... 291 9. Physiological classification and characteristics of physical exercises...... 291 9. 1. Various criteria for the classification of exercises...... 292 9. 2. Modern classification of physical exercises.. .... 293 9. 3. Physiological characteristics of sports poses and static loads ...... 294 9. 4. Physiological characteristics of standard cyclic and acyclic movements ...... 298 9. 5. Physiological characteristics of non-standard movements. ..... 303 10. Physiological mechanisms and patterns of development of physical qualities...... 305 10. 1. Forms of manifestation, mechanisms and reserves for the development of strength...... 306 10. 2. Forms of manifestation, mechanisms and reserves for the development of speed...... 310 10. 3. Forms of manifestation, mechanisms and reserves for the development of endurance...... 313 10. 4. The concept of dexterity and flexibility. Mechanisms and patterns of their development...... 318 11. Physiological mechanisms and patterns of the formation of motor skills. ..... 320 11. 1. Motor skills, skills and methods of their research...... 320 11. 2. Physiological mechanisms of the formation of motor skills...... 321 11. 3. Physiological patterns and stages of formation motor skills...... 324 11. 4. Physiological bases for improving motor skills...... 330 12. Physiological bases for the development of fitness...... 333 12. 1. Physiological characteristics of training and fitness state.. .... 334 12. 2. Testing the functional readiness of athletes at rest ...... 336 12. 3. Testing the functional readiness of athletes under standard and extreme loads ...... 339 12. 4. Physiological characteristics of overtraining and overvoltage...... 343 13. Sports performance in special environmental conditions...... 346 13. 1. The influence of temperature and humidity on sports performance...... 346 13. 2. Sports performance in conditions of changed barometric pressure...... 348 13. 3. Sports performance when changing climatic conditions...... 353 13. 4. Physiological changes in the body during swimming...... 355 14. Physiological basics of sports training for women...... 357 14. 1. Morphofunctional characteristics of the female body...... 357 14. 2. Changes in body functions during training...... 365 14. 3. Influence of the biological cycle on the performance of women...... 370 14. 4. Individualization of the training process, taking into account the phases of the biological cycle...... 373 15. Physiological and genetic features of sports selection...... 375 15. 1. Physiological genetic approach to issues of sports selection...... 376 15. 2. Hereditary influences on the morpho-functional characteristics and physical qualities of a person...... 378 15. 3. Taking into account the physiological and genetic characteristics of a person in sports selection.. .... 383 15. 4. The significance of genetically adequate and inadequate choice of sports activity and sensorimotor dominance ...... 390 15. 5. The use of genetic markers to search for highly and rapidly trained athletes ...... 395 16. The influence of the genome on the functional state, performance and health of athletes...... 398 16. 1. Storage, transmission hereditary information and genome decoding...... 398 16. 2. Genetic DNA markers in sports...... 402 16. 3. Genetic doping in sports...... 405 16. 4. Detection of doping... ... 415 16. 5. Risk to health...... 417 17. Physiological foundations of health-improving physical culture...... 421 17. 1. The role of physical culture in modern life...... 422 17. 2. Hypokinesia, physical inactivity and their influence on the human body...... 425 17. 3. Basic forms of health-improving physical culture and their influence on the functional state of the body...... 428 Part III. AGE PHYSIOLOGY...... 435 1. General physiological patterns of growth and development of the human body...... 435 1. 1. Periodization and heterochronicity of development...... 435 1. 2. Sensitive periods... ... 438 1. 3. The influence of heredity and environment on the development of the body...... 441 1. 4. Epochal and individual acceleration, biological and passport age...... 444 2. Physiological characteristics of the body of preschool children and primary school age and their adaptation to physical activity...... 448 2. 1. Development of the central nervous system, higher nervous activity and sensory systems...... 448 2. 2. Physical development and the musculoskeletal system ...... 456 2. 3. Features of blood, circulation and respiration...... 457 2. 4. Features of digestion, metabolism and energy...... 461 2. 5. Features of thermoregulation, processes secretion and activity of the endocrine glands...... 462 2. 6. Physiological features of adaptation of children of preschool and primary school age to physical activity...... 466 3. Physiological features of the body of children of middle and high school age and their adaptation to physical activity...... 488 3. 1. Development of the central nervous system, higher nervous activity and sensory systems...... 489 3. 2. Physical development and the musculoskeletal system...... 494 3. 3. Features of blood, circulation and respiration...... 497 3. 4. Features of digestion, excretion and endocrine system...... 500 3. 5. Features of thermoregulation, metabolism and energy.... .. 506 3. 6. Physiological features of adaptation of children of middle and high school age to physical activity...... 508 4. Physiological features of a physical education lesson at school...... 530 4. 1. Physiological justification for rationing physical loads for school-age children...... 530 4. 2. Changes in body functions of schoolchildren during a physical education lesson. ..... 533 4. 3. The influence of physical education classes on the physical, functional development, performance and health status of schoolchildren...... 536 4. 4. Physiological and pedagogical control over physical education classes and physiological criteria for the restoration of the body of schoolchildren ...... 543 5. Physiological characteristics of the body of mature and elderly people and their adaptation to physical activity...... 548 5. 1. Aging, life expectancy, adaptive reactions and reactivity of the body...... 549 5. 2. Age-related features of the musculoskeletal system, autonomic and sensory systems...... 553 5. 3. Age-related features of regulatory systems...... 557 5. 4. Physiological features of adaptation of mature and elderly people to physical activity...... 561 6. Physiological characteristics of information processing in athletes of different ages...... 573 6. 1. The importance of information processing processes for sports and their age-related characteristics...... 573 6. 2. Physiological foundations of the processes of perception, decision-making and programming of response actions...... 575 6. 3. Speed and efficiency of tactical thinking. Bandwidth brain...... 579 6. 4. Noise immunity of athletes, its age-related characteristics...... 582 7. Functional asymmetries of athletes of different ages...... 583 7. 1. Motor asymmetries in humans, their age-related features...... 583 7. 2. Sensory and mental asymmetries. Individual asymmetry profile...... 586 7. 3. Manifestation of functional asymmetry in athletes...... 589 7. 4. Physiological bases of training process management taking into account functional asymmetry...... 593 8. Physiological bases individual typological characteristics of athletes and their development in ontogenesis...... 595 8. 1. Individual typological characteristics of a person...... 596 8. 2. Development of typological characteristics in ontogenesis...... 598 8 3. Individual typological characteristics of athletes and their consideration in the training process...... 601 8. 4. Individual typological characteristics of biorhythms and their impact on human performance...... 604 CONCLUSION...... 609
Publisher: "Sport" (2015)
UDC 612:796.01 BBK 58.0Solodkov A. S., Sologub E. B. Physiology of sports:
Textbook/ SPbGAFK im. P. F. Lesgaft. St. Petersburg, 1999. 231 p.
The manual presents modern data on the main sections of general and specific physiology of sports. The materials comply with the physiology curriculum for physical education universities and the requirements of the State educational standard for higher professional education.
The manual is intended for students, postgraduate students, researchers, teachers, trainers and doctors who study and develop problems of sports physiology and supervise those involved in physical culture and sports.
Table 9. bibliogr. 13.
Reviewers:
V. I. Kuleshov, Dr. honey. sciences, prof. (VMedA); O. S. Nasonkin, Dr. honey. sciences, prof. (SPbGAFK named after P.F. Lesgaft).
St. Petersburg State Academy of Physical Culture named after. P. F. Lesgaft, 1999
Preface
The rapid development of physiology and the acceleration of scientific and technological progress in the country led to the emergence in the 30s of our century of a new independent section of human physiology - sports physiology, although individual works devoted to the study of body functions during physical activity were published at the end of the last century (I. O. Rozanov, S. S. Gruzdev, Yu. V. Blazhevich, P. K. Gorbachev, etc.). It should be emphasized that systematic research and teaching of sports physiology began in our country earlier than abroad and was more targeted. By the way, we note that only in 1989 the General Assembly of the International Union of Physiological Sciences decided to create a commission under it “Physiology of Sports”, although similar commissions and sections in the system of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, the All-Union Physiological Society named after. I.P. Pavlov and the USSR State Sports Committee have existed in our country since the 1960s.
The theoretical prerequisites for the emergence and development of sports physiology were created by the fundamental works of I. M. Sechenov, I. P. Pavlov, N. E. Vvedensky, A. A. Ukhtomsky, I. S. Beritashvili, K. M. Bykov and others. However, the systematic study of the physiological foundations of physical culture and sports began much later. Particularly great credit for the creation of this section of physiology belongs to L. A. Orbeli and his student A. N. Krestovnikov, and it is inextricably linked with the formation and development of the P. F. Lesgaft Academy of Physical Culture and its department of physiology - the first such department among physical education universities in the country.
The development of sports physiology was largely due to extensive fundamental and applied research on the subject. The development of any science confronts representatives of many specialties with more and more new practical problems, to which theory cannot always and immediately give an unambiguous answer. However, as D. Crowcroft (1970) wittily noted, “... scientific research has one strange feature: it has the habit of sooner or later being useful to someone or something.” Analysis of the development of educational and scientific areas of sports physiology clearly confirms this position.
Knowledge of the history of any science is a necessary prerequisite for a correct understanding of the place, role and significance of the discipline in the content of the socio-political status of society, its influence on this science, as well as science and its representatives on the development of society. Therefore, consideration of the historical path of development of sports physiology, mention of its most prominent representatives and analysis of the natural scientific base on which the basic concepts and ideas of this discipline were formed make it possible to assess the current state of the subject and determine promising directions for its further development.
To date, there is significant factual material on the physiology of sports, presented in relevant textbooks and teaching aids. However, in last years New data has appeared on some sections of the subject that were not included in previous editions. In addition, due to the constantly changing and complementary curriculum, the content of previously published sections of the discipline does not correspond to modern thematic plans according to which teaching is conducted in physical education universities in Russia. Taking into account the above, this textbook is devoted to the presentation of supplemented and a number of new materials within the framework of today's educational and scientific information, in which the general and specific parts of the physiology of sports are highlighted. The relevant sections of the manual also include the results of the authors’ own research.
The authors are aware that when summary Some of the material was not adequately and comprehensively presented in the manual. They will gratefully accept all comments and suggestions aimed at its further improvement.
PART ONE
GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY OF SPORTS
SPORTS PHYSIOLOGY –
Physiology of sports is both an academic and scientific discipline. Its study is carried out in all higher and secondary physical education institutions, in the faculties of physical education of pedagogical universities, as well as in individual departments of state universities and medical universities. In teaching the subject, practical activities of trainers, physiologists and sports doctors materials obtained during research work are used, which are carried out in relevant research institutes, laboratories and departments.
Physiology of sports, its content and objectives.
Physiology of sportsis a special branch of human physiology that studies changes in body functions and their mechanisms under the influence of muscular (sports) activity and substantiates practical measures to increase its effectiveness.
The physiology of sports, in its place in the system of training specialists in physical culture and sports, is associated with three groups of educational and scientific disciplines. The first group consists of fundamental sciences, in which based physiology of sports, it uses their theoretical achievements, research methods and information about environmental factors with which the athlete’s body interacts in the process of training and competitive activity. These disciplines include biology, human and animal physiology, chemistry and physics.
The second group includes educational and scientific disciplines that interact with the physiology of sports in such a way that they mutually enrich or complement each other. In this regard, the physiology of sports is closely related to anatomy, biochemistry, biomechanics, hygiene and psychology.
And finally, the third group of disciplines with which sports physiology is associated are those that use its scientific achievements and research methods for their own purposes. These include the theory and methodology of physical culture, pedagogy, sports pedagogical disciplines, sports medicine, physical therapy.
The physiology of sports includes two relatively independent and at the same time interconnected parts. The content of the first - general sports physiology - are the physiological bases of adaptation to physical stress and the reserve capabilities of the body, functional changes and states of the body during sports activity, as well as the physical performance of an athlete and the physiological bases of fatigue and recovery in sports. Second part - private sports physiology - includes the physiological classification of physical exercises, mechanisms and patterns of formation and development of motor qualities and skills, sports performance in special environmental conditions, physiological characteristics of training women and children of different ages, physiological foundations of mass forms of health-improving physical culture.
One of the important tasks of sports physiology is the scientific substantiation, development and implementation of measures that ensure the achievement of high sports results and the preservation of the health of athletes. Hence, sport physiology is an applied and mainly preventive science , since, by exploring and taking into account the reserve capabilities of the human body, it substantiates ways and means of increasing performance, accelerating recovery processes, preventing overwork, overstrain and pathological changes in body functions, as well as preventing the occurrence of various diseases.
A distinctive methodological feature of sports physiology is that its materials can only be obtained on humans, where the use of a number of classical methods of physiology is impossible. In this regard, only a few clarifying experiments, as a rule, with the aim of studying the mechanisms of physiological changes during physical activity, are carried out on animals. It is also important to emphasize that The main task of sports physiology is the comparative study of the functional state of the human body, i.e. The study is carried out before, during and after physical activity, which is very difficult under natural conditions. Therefore, special stress tests have been developed that allow dosing physical activity and recording corresponding changes in body functions during different periods of human activity. For this purpose, a bicycle ergometer, a treadmill (treadmill), steps of different heights, as well as various devices are used that make it possible to record the functions of the cardiovascular, respiratory, muscular and central nervous systems at a distance, transmitting the corresponding indicators via telemetric channels.
The physiology of sports occupies an important place in the theory of physical culture, forming the foundation of knowledge necessary for coaches and teachers to achieve high sports results and maintain the health of athletes. Therefore, the coach and teacher must be well aware of the changes in physiological processes occurring in the athlete’s body during training and competitive activities in order to scientifically build and improve this work, be able to justify their orders and recommendations, avoid overwork and overexertion and not cause harm to health training. They must also understand the essence of the changes that occur in the athlete’s body during the rehabilitation period in order to actively and competently influence them, accelerating recovery reactions.
Thus, from the above it follows that Sports physiology as an educational and scientific discipline solves two main problems. One of them is the physiological substantiation of the laws of strengthening human health with the help of physical exercises and increasing the resistance of his body to the action of various unfavorable environmental factors (temperature, pressure, radiation, air and water pollution, infections, etc.), as well as in maintaining and restoring performance, preventing the development of early fatigue and correction psycho-emotional overloads in the process of human professional activity. These tasks of sports physiology are solved within the framework of mass forms of physical culture.
The second problem of sports physiology is the physiological justification of activities aimed at achieving high sports results, especially in elite sports. These two problems do not completely coincide, since in order to achieve the highest results during training, in some cases such loads are used that can lead to a decrease in the body’s resistance to adverse environmental influences, deterioration of health, and even the occurrence of diseases.
Based on all that has been said, it becomes obvious that the physiological characteristics of the body’s functions should be studied and assessed separately both in relation to mass physical culture and physical training of special contingents (military personnel, firefighters, geologists, students, schoolchildren and some other categories), and in relation to various sports, especially elite sports.
Department of Physiology, St. Petersburg State Academy of Physical Culture named after. P. F. Lesgafta and its role in the formation and development of sports physiology.
By decree of the Council of People's Commissars of October 22, 1919, on the basis of the Higher Courses of Physical Education, the Institute of Physical Education named after. P. F. Lesgaft (in 1929 transformed into the Institute of Physical Culture named after P. F. Lesgaft, and in 1993 into the Academy) with the establishment of a number of departments, including the Department of Physiology ~ the first such department among physical education universities in the country
The organized department from 1919 to 1927 was headed by Leon Abgarovich Orbeli, later a full member of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences and the Armenian SSR Academy of Sciences, Hero of Socialist Labor, laureate of USSR State Prizes, Colonel General medical service, honorary member of a number of foreign academies. Already in those years, under the leadership of L.A. Orbeli carried out the first research work on the effect of physical activity on the body. However, the subject was mainly taught according to the curriculum of medical institutes in the form of lecturing and performing separate laboratory exercises in the course of general physiology, with some emphasis on the section “Muscle Physiology”. In applied terms, only certain medical issues related to the effect of physical exercise on the body were covered. This content of the discipline reflected at that time the objective state of scientific knowledge in the field of physiology of muscular activity both in our country and abroad. It was the initial, first, period of the formation of sports physiology.
After L. A. Orbeli left the institute, Alexey Nikolaevich Krestovnikov, who headed the department of physiology for 28 years, from 1927 to 1955, was elected head. During this period, the department staff did a lot of work to collect functional indicators of the athletes’ bodies under the influence of various physical exercises and analyze their changes. The generalized material allowed Professor A. N. Krestovnikov to publish the first physiology textbook in our country for physical education institutes (1938) and the first monograph on the physiology of sports (1939). The publication of these books made it possible to highlight and finally form a new educational and scientific section of the subject in human physiology - sports physiology. From now on it begins second, transitional period of development of sports physiology (1930-1950s) as an educational and scientific discipline. From 1955 to 1960, the department was headed by Professor Evgraf Konstantinovich Zhukov.
Modern, third, period of development of sports physiology (1960-1990s) is characterized by the creation of systematic educational and scientific sections of the discipline that correspond to the new tasks of training highly qualified, competent specialists in physical culture and sports. The curricula of this period reflect two interrelated parts of the subject (general and specific sports physiology). Since that time, sports physiologists have begun to study not only the impact of individual physical activity on body functions, but also the influence of systematic training and its characteristics on the functional state of athletes, especially in the process of achieving the highest sports mastery.
Important role Professor Nikolai Vasilievich Zimkin, who headed the Department of Physiology from 1961 to 1975, played a role in the formation of the modern course in sports physiology. and published three editions of the textbook “Human Physiology” under his editorship (1964, 1970, 1975). Research in the field of blood circulation, the neuromuscular system, electroencephalography is being intensively developed, and the physiology of stress conditions in sports is being studied. Doctoral dissertations are defended by V.V. Vasiliev. E. B. Sologub, Yu. 3. Zakharyants. In the period 1975-1984. The department is headed by Honored Scientist of the RSFSR, Professor Alexander Sergeevich Mozzhukhin. The main direction of research work is the study of the athlete’s functional reserves. During 1984-1986. The duties of the head of the department are temporarily performed by the Honorary Worker of Higher Education of Russia, Professor Elena Borisovna Sologub. Since 1986, the department has been headed by Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation, Professor Alexey Sergeevich Solodkov. The team's scientific interests focus on the problem of physiological adaptation of athletes' bodies to physical activity.
Having a highly qualified staff, the Department of Physiology made a great contribution to the training of scientific and pedagogical personnel and the preparation of curricula, textbooks and teaching aids for institutes and technical schools of physical education. Thus, from 1935 (when the defense of dissertations was introduced) to 1998, under the leadership of the department’s staff, 13 doctoral and 160 candidate dissertations were successfully defended (including by foreign graduate students from Cuba, China, India, Egypt and Poland).
The department staff took part in the compilation of all publications published from 1938 to 1990. 11 curricula and 10 textbooks on physiology for physical education institutes. At the same time, the editors of 8 educational programs and 6 textbooks were the heads of the Department of Physiology of the GDOIPC named after. P. F. Lesgaft. In 13 textbooks on sports pedagogical disciplines, chapters on the physiological characteristics of physical exercises were also written by employees of the Department of Physiology. The department prepared and published 8 methodological manuals in the form of workshops on conducting laboratory classes in physiology, 7 special textbooks were published for students of the correspondence faculty and 4 for technical schools of physical education. More than 30 lectures have been published on various issues of the physiological characteristics of physical exercise.
The teachers' research work covered all the main sections of physiology: nervous and muscular systems, sensory organs, blood circulation and respiration, excretion, internal secretion, as well as special problems of sports physiology: adaptation to physical activity, functional reserves of the athlete's body, fatigue and recovery, etc. Every year dozens of scientific papers are published on various issues of sports physiology. From 1939 to 1990, employees of the department published 20 monographs directly related to the physiology of sports, some of them were translated abroad (Bulgaria, Germany, Poland, Romania, Greece, Czechoslovakia).
The highly qualified team of employees of the Department of Physiology constantly attracted the attention of the teaching staff of other institutes, especially newly formed ones. Since the pre-war years, teachers from a number of physical education institutes and physical education departments of pedagogical institutes, physical education institutes of socialist countries and some medical universities have been trained at the department. Over the past 5 years alone, about 40 people have completed such an internship at the department. In addition, advanced training of teachers from the above-mentioned institutes in the specialization “physiology” is regularly carried out in the IPK and PC of our university.
The role of the department’s employees in the field of organizational activities is also significant. Thus, A. N. Krestovnikov, until 1955, headed the methodological commission on physiology of the All-Union Committee on Physical Culture and Sports under the Council of Ministers of the USSR, N. V. Zimkin from 1962 to 1976, along with the leadership of this Commission, was the chairman of the scientific commission on physiology , biomechanics, morphology and biochemistry of sports, chairman of the coordinating commission for the teaching of biomedical disciplines and member of the presidium of the Scientific Council of the USSR State Sports Committee. A. S. Mozzhukhin from 1976 to 1985 was a member of the methodological commission of the USSR State Sports Committee and was the chairman of the Council of Heads of Physiology Departments of Physical Culture Institutes of the RSFSR, and A.S. Solodkov is a member of the Scientific Council of the USSR State Sports Committee for Biological Sciences, chairman of the section “Physiology of Sports” of the Problem Commission of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences and the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, and currently heads the section “Physiology of Sports” of the St. Petersburg Society of Physiologists, Biochemists and Pharmacologists named after. I. M. Sechenov and is a member of the Board of this company.
In recent years, the staff of the department has been doing a lot of work to rebuild and improve the teaching of physiology and conduct scientific research. In accordance with the new curriculum and the new program in physiology, work programs and thematic plans for lectures and laboratory classes on the subject have been redone. Taking into account the fact that the number of lecture hours in the new program has been significantly reduced, the lectures are predominantly problematic in nature. Laboratory classes are conducted in such a way that they contribute to understanding the essence, mechanisms and features of the regulation of physiological processes during muscle activity, mastering research methods, and instilling research skills in students.
Implementation of new curriculum according to the multi-level structure of higher physical education, it requires the creation of special educational and professional programs in physiology, taking into account the training of bachelors, certified specialists and Masters of Science. Solving these problems is especially important and a priority for the department because our academy has developed its own version of the curriculum for the implementation of a multi-level structure of higher physical education in Russia.
For the achievements in educational and scientific work and in connection with the 75th anniversary of the founding of the department in April 1995, by decision of the Academic Council of the Academy, it was named after Professor A. N. Krestovnikov, and two of his personal scholarships were established for students.
1.3. State of the art and prospects for the development of sports physiology.
The main educational and scientific developments in the physiology of sports began for the first time and are inextricably linked with the history of the development of the Department of Physiology of the Institute of Physical Culture named after. P. F. Lesgaft. A special feature of the activities of the Department of Physiology was the creation of scientific laboratories in the main sections of sports physiology.
The research carried out in these laboratories made it possible to obtain new data on sports bioenergy and to classify sports exercises taking into account their energy characteristics (A. B. Gandelsman); a method for non-invasive determination of the composition of skeletal muscles was developed and the mechanisms of motor skill development were revealed (N. V. Zimkin); the phenomenon of potential synchronization on electromyograms during fatigue was identified (E.K. Zhukov); the characteristics of vascular reactions in athletes of various specializations were determined (V.V. Vasilyeva); an original method for recording electroencephalograms directly during the process of high-intensity muscular work was created and the cortical mechanisms of regulating the movements of athletes were studied for the first time (E. B. Sologub); emotions of competitive activity were studied (S. A. Razumov); the idea of an athlete’s physiological reserves has been developed (A. S. Mozzhukhin); the doctrine of the functional system of adaptation of athletes was substantiated (A. S. Solodkov), etc.
Subsequently, the study of various problems of sports physiology in our country significantly expanded and deepened, but in most cases, methodological approaches developed at the Department of Physiology of the Institute of Physical Culture named after. P. F. Lesgaft. Currently, research is being conducted in all educational and research institutes of physical education, in many universities, medical and pedagogical universities. The role and significance of all physiological systems of the body during muscular activity are studied, as well as priority problems for the physiology of sports: adaptation to physical activity, performance, fatigue and recovery of athletes, functional reserves of the body, etc.
Clarification of the issue of extrapolation processes in the central nervous system is essential for justifying the variability of loads during sports training. Only on the basis of this concept can the training process be correctly constructed, in which the magnitude, speed and intensity of the loads must vary, which is not always taken into account by doctors, coaches and athletes. It is also necessary to take into account the age-related dynamics of human locomotor functions.
The priority directions for further research in the physiology of the central nervous system are to elucidate the features of the formation and mobilization of functional reserves of the brain of athletes and study the restructuring of cortical functional systems of interconnected activity in the process of adapting them to specialized loads. Significant attention should be paid to studies of evoked activity in the cerebral cortex and spinal cord, as well as the role of functional asymmetry and sensory systems in the formation of some special motor skills.
In recent years, a new direction in sports physiology has been developing, associated with the development of sports genetics and considering the features of hereditary influences and trainability of various physiological indicators and physical qualities and, first of all, the role of the innate individual-typological characteristics of the body for sports orientation, selection and prediction of achievements in sports .
The beneficial changes that occur in the body, and in particular in the cardiovascular system, when engaging in physical education and sports are obvious. However, not all issues in this section of sports cardiology have been resolved, and the study of functional changes cannot be considered complete. The possibility of developing pathological changes in the heart (pathological athletic heart, according to G. F. Lang), which can arise primarily as a result of excessive training loads that exceed the capabilities of a particular athlete, requires further research. The difficulties in studying and preventing a number of diseases in athletes lie in the fact that currently there is no developed and scientifically based course on the pathological physiology of sports, the need for which is very obvious.
To date, there is no data regarding the effectiveness of different combinations of movement tempo and breathing rate in various sports, as well as on the nature and degree of voluntary corrections of external respiration.
The issue of the duration of recovery after intense training and competitive loads still remains controversial.
Touching upon some special theoretical issues that have undoubted applied significance in sports, we must first of all point out the problems of adaptation to physical activity, functional reserves of the body, sports biorhythmology, psychophysiological and medical selection and professional guidance of athletes. In particular, the immediate tasks are to determine quantitative criteria for various stages of adaptation, analyze adaptive functional systems formed during various types of sports activities, differentiate adaptive changes from prepathological conditions and study compensatory reactions.
For many years, research has been carried out on various functions of the body of athletes. However, comprehensive surveys are carried out relatively rarely, and the analysis of their results involves lengthy processing of the data obtained. In this regard, in sports physiology, so-called express methods are becoming of great importance, allowing one to assess the functional state of an athlete not only after, but also during training and competition. Important tasks of sports physiologists are also the justification, development and implementation of express methods in order to study functional adaptation systems that are formed to various types physical exercise. The use of computers will make it possible to quickly analyze and summarize the results obtained by various research methods, and immediately implement the most important and informative ones into practice.
When talking about mass physical culture, the following must be taken into account. The applied loads should cause changes corresponding only to the stage of increasing the nonspecific stability (adaptability) of the organism. It is also necessary to prevent the possibility of injury. All this also applies to the physical training of special contingents: military personnel, rescue teams, etc. Physical education classes with children, women, disabled people and people with poor health deserve special attention. Further development and scientific substantiation of a number of physiological problems associated with the age-related and medical-biological characteristics of these groups of people and the nature of their adaptive changes are required.
In the coming years, in mass physical culture, it is necessary to resolve the issues of the minimum volume of physical exercises with various combinations and the required duration of classes, which together will allow obtaining a sufficient healing effect in relation to people’s resistance to the effects of adverse environmental factors and maintaining high mental and physical performance. This kind of research is complex and voluminous, but it is extremely necessary. At the same time, the minimum norms of load and time during physical exercise will obviously be different for people of different ages, health conditions, gender, profession, which will require a differentiated approach to research of different population groups. At the same time, it must be emphasized that until now, the main attention of researchers has been paid to sports, especially elite sports. Mass physical culture is on the sidelines, and functional changes and adaptive changes are studied to a lesser extent.
The intensively developing practice of physical culture and sports requires the fastest implementation of applied areas of sports physiology. At the same time, we should once again recall the well-known position that without developing deeply theoretical problems and without conducting fundamental research, we will constantly lag behind in practice. It is useful to recall the words of the famous Italian physicist and physiologist Alessandro Volta, which he said back in 1815: “There is nothing more practical than a good theory.”
2. ADAPTATION TO PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND RESERVE CAPABILITIES OF THE ORGANISM.
One of the most important problems of modern physiology and medicine is the study of the patterns of the body’s adaptation to various environmental factors. Human adaptation affects a wide range of general biological patterns, the interests of workers in various scientific disciplines and is associated, first of all, with the self-regulation of multicomponent functional systems. It is no coincidence that the problem of human adaptation is one of the main sections of the extensive International Biological Program.
Currently, there are a number of definitions of adaptation. In our opinion, the most complete concept of physiological adaptation is given in the third edition of the Great Soviet Encyclopedia: “Physiological adaptation is a set of physiological reactions that underlies the body’s adaptation to changes in environmental conditions and is aimed at maintaining the relative constancy of its internal environment - homeostasis.” (M., 1969. T.]. P. 216).
The significance of the problem of adaptation in sports is determined primarily by the fact that the athlete’s body must adapt to physical activity in a relatively short time. It is the speed of adaptation and its duration that largely determine the health and fitness of the athlete. In this regard, the development of a systemic substantiation of the body’s adaptation in the process of achieving the highest sports mastery is of significant scientific interest for the practice of sports. At the same time, it is well known that the morphofunctional characteristics of the human body, formed over a long period of evolution, cannot change with the same speed with which the structure and nature of training and competitive loads in sports change. The discrepancy in time between these processes can lead to the occurrence of functional disorders, which are manifested by various pathological disorders.
2.1. Dynamics of body functions during adaptation and its stages.
Determining the functional changes that occur during training and competitive loads is necessary, first of all, to assess the adaptation process, the degree of fatigue, the level of fitness and performance of athletes and is the basis for improving rehabilitation measures. The influence of physical activity on a person can only be judged on the basis of a comprehensive account of the totality of reactions of the whole organism, including reactions from the central nervous system, hormonal apparatus, cardiovascular and respiratory systems, analyzers, metabolism, etc. It should be emphasized that the severity of changes in functions the body's response to physical activity depends primarily on the individual characteristics of the person and his level of fitness. Changes in the functional indicators of athletes' bodies can be correctly analyzed and comprehensively assessed only when considering them in relation to the adaptation process.
Textbook for higher educational institutions of physical culture. 7th edition
Approved by the Ministry of the Russian Federation for Physical Culture and Sports as a textbook for higher educational institutions of physical culture
The publication was prepared at the Department of Physiology of the National state university physical culture, sports and health named after. P. F. Lesgafta, St. Petersburg
Reviewers:
V. I. Kuleshov, doctor med. sciences, prof. (VmedA named after S. M. Kirov)
I. M. Kozlov, Doctor of Biology and doctor ped. sciences, prof. (NSU named after P.F. Lesgaft, St. Petersburg)
© Solodkov A. S., Sologub E. B., 2001, 2005, 2008, 2015, 2017
© Publication, LLC Publishing House "Sport", 2017
Aleksey Sergeevich Solodkov – Professor of the Department of Physiology of the National State University of Physical Culture, Sports and Health named after. P. F. Lesgafta (head of the department for 25 years, 1986–2012).
Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation, Academician of the Petrovsky Academy of Sciences and Arts, Honorary Worker of Higher Professional Education of the Russian Federation, Chairman of the section “Physiology of Sports” and member of the Board of the St. Petersburg Physiological Society named after. I. M. Sechenov.
Sologub Elena Borisovna – Doctor of Biological Sciences, Professor. Since 2002 he has lived in New York (USA).
At the Department of Physiology of the National State University of Physical Culture, Sports and Health. P.F. Lesgafta worked since 1956, from 1986 to 2002 - as a professor of the department. Was elected academician Russian Academy Medical and Technical Sciences, Honorary Worker of Higher Education in Russia, Member of the Board of the St. Petersburg Society of Physiologists, Biochemists and Pharmacologists named after. I. M. Sechenov.
Preface
Human physiology is the theoretical basis of a number of practical disciplines (medicine, psychology, pedagogy, biomechanics, biochemistry, etc.). Without understanding the normal course of physiological processes and the constants that characterize them, various specialists cannot correctly assess the functional state of the human body and its performance in different conditions activities. Knowledge of the physiological mechanisms of regulation of various body functions is important in understanding the course of recovery processes during and after intense muscular labor.
By revealing the basic mechanisms that ensure the existence of an entire organism and its interaction with the environment, physiology makes it possible to clarify and study the conditions and nature of changes in the activity of various organs and systems in the process of human ontogenesis. Physiology is the science that carries out systems approach in the study and analysis of diverse intra- and intersystem relationships of complex human body and bringing them together specific functional formations and a unified theoretical picture.
It is important to emphasize that domestic researchers play a significant role in the development of modern scientific physiological concepts. Knowledge of the history of any science is a necessary prerequisite for a correct understanding of the place, role and significance of the discipline in the content of the socio-political status of society, its influence on this science, as well as the influence of science and its representatives on the development of society. Therefore, consideration of the historical path of development of individual sections of physiology, mention of its most prominent representatives and analysis of the natural science base on which the basic concepts and ideas of this discipline were formed make it possible to assess the current state of the subject and determine its further promising directions.
Physiological science in Russia in the 18th–19th centuries is represented by a galaxy of brilliant scientists - I. M. Sechenov, F. V. Ovsyannikov, A. Ya. Danilevsky, A. F. Samoilov, I. R. Tarkhanov, N. E. Vvedensky and etc. But only I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov deserve the credit for creating new directions not only in Russian, but also in world physiology.
Physiology as an independent discipline began to be taught in 1738 at the Academic (later St. Petersburg) University. Moscow University, founded in 1755, also played a significant role in the development of physiology, where the Department of Physiology was opened within its structure in 1776.
In 1798, the Medical-Surgical (Military Medical) Academy was founded in St. Petersburg, which played an exceptional role in the development of human physiology. The Department of Physiology created under her was successively headed by P. A. Zagorsky, D. M. Vellansky, N. M. Yakubovich, I. M. Sechenov, I. F. Tsion, F. V. Ovsyannikov, I. R. Tarkhanov, I. P. Pavlov, L. A. Orbeli, A. V. Lebedinsky, M.P. Brestkin and other outstanding representatives of physiological science. Behind each named name there are discoveries in physiology that are of global significance.
Physiology was included in the curriculum at physical education universities from the first days of their organization. At the Higher Courses of Physical Education created by P. F. Lesgaft in 1896, a physiology office was immediately opened, the first head of which was Academician I. R. Tarkhanov. In subsequent years, physiology was taught here by N.P. Kravkov, A.A. Walter, P.P. Rostovtsev, V.Ya. Chagovets, A. G. Ginetsinsky, A. A. Ukhtomsky, L. A. Orbeli, I. S. Beritov, A. N. Krestovnikov, G. V. Folbort and others.
The rapid development of physiology and the acceleration of scientific and technological progress in the country led to the emergence in the 30s of the 20th century of a new independent section of human physiology - sports physiology, although individual works devoted to the study of body functions during physical activity were published at the end of the 19th century (I O. Rozanov, S. S. Gruzdev, Yu. V. Blazhevich, P. K. Gorbachev, etc.). It should be emphasized that systematic research and teaching of sports physiology began in our country earlier than abroad, and was more targeted. By the way, we note that only in 1989 the General Assembly of the International Union of Physiological Sciences decided to create a commission under it “Physiology of Sports”, although similar commissions and sections in the system of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, the All-Union Physiological Society named after. I. P. Pavlova of the USSR State Sports Committee have existed in our country since the 1960s.
The theoretical prerequisites for the emergence and development of sports physiology were created by the fundamental works of I. M. Sechenov, I. P. Pavlov, N. E. Vvedensky, A. A. Ukhtomsky, I. S. Beritashvili, K. M. Bykov and others. However, the systematic study of the physiological foundations of physical culture and sports began much later. Particularly great merit in the creation of this section of physiology belongs to L. A. Orbeli and his student A. N. Krestovnikov, and it is inextricably linked with the formation and development of the University of Physical Culture. P.F. Lesgaft and his department of physiology - the first such department among physical education universities in the country and in the world.
After the creation in 1919 of the Department of Physiology at the Institute of Physical Education. P. F. Lesgaft teaching this subject carried out by L. A. Orbeli, A. N. Krestovnikov, V. V. Vasilyeva, A. B. Gandelsman, E. K. Zhukov, N. V. Zimkin, A. S. Mozzhukhin, E. B. Sologub, A. S. Solodkov and others. In 1938, A. N. Krestovnikov published the first “Textbook of Physiology” in our country and in the world for physical education institutes, and in 1939 – the monograph “Physiology of Sports”. An important role in the further development of teaching the discipline was played by three editions of the “Textbook of Human Physiology” edited by N.V. Zimkin (1964, 1970, 1975).
Author Alexander Sergeevich Solodkov
Alexey Solodkov, Elena Sologub
Human physiology. General. Sports. Age
Textbook for higher educational institutions of physical culture
6th edition, revised and expanded
Approved by the Ministry of the Russian Federation for Physical Culture and Sports as a textbook for higher educational institutions of physical culture
The publication was prepared at the Department of Physiology of the National State University of Physical Culture, Sports and Health named after P.F. Lesgafta, St. Petersburg
Reviewers:
IN AND. Kuleshov, doctor med. sciences, prof. (VmedA named after S.M. Kirov)
THEM. Kozlov, doctor of biol, and doctor of ped. sciences, prof.
(NSU named after P.F. Lesgaft, St. Petersburg)
Preface
Human physiology is the theoretical basis of a number of practical disciplines (medicine, psychology, pedagogy, biomechanics, biochemistry, etc.) Without understanding the normal course of physiological processes and the constants that characterize them, various specialists cannot correctly assess the functional state of the human body and its performance in various conditions activities. Knowledge of the physiological mechanisms of regulation of various body functions is important in understanding the course of recovery processes during and after intense muscular labor.
By revealing the basic mechanisms that ensure the existence of an entire organism and its interaction with the environment, physiology makes it possible to clarify and study the conditions and nature of changes in the activity of various organs and systems in the process of human ontogenesis. Physiology is the science that carries out systems approach in the study and analysis of the diverse intra- and intersystem relationships of the complex human body and their reduction into specific functional formations and a unified theoretical picture.
It is important to emphasize that domestic researchers play a significant role in the development of modern scientific physiological concepts. Knowledge of the history of any science is a necessary prerequisite for a correct understanding of the place, role and significance of the discipline in the content of the socio-political status of society, its influence on this science, as well as the influence of science and its representatives on the development of society. Therefore, consideration of the historical path of development of individual sections of physiology, mention of its most prominent representatives and analysis of the natural scientific base on which the basic concepts and ideas of this discipline were formed make it possible to assess the current state of the subject and determine its further promising directions.
Physiological science in Russia in the 18th–19th centuries was represented by a galaxy of brilliant scientists - I.M. Sechenov, F.V. Ovsyannikov, A.Ya. Danilevsky, A.F. Samoilov, I.R. Tarkhanov, N.E. Vvedensky and others. But only I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov is credited with creating new directions not only in Russian, but also in world physiology.
Physiology as an independent discipline began to be taught in 1738 at the Academic (later St. Petersburg) University. Moscow University, founded in 1755, also played a significant role in the development of physiology, where the Department of Physiology was opened within its structure in 1776.
In 1798, the Medical-Surgical (Military Medical) Academy was founded in St. Petersburg, which played an exceptional role in the development of human physiology. The Department of Physiology created under her was successively headed by P.A. Zagorsky, D.M. Vellansky, N.M. Yakubovich, I.M. Sechenov, I.F. Zion, F.V. Ovsyannikov, I.R. Tarkhanov, I.P. Pavlov, L.A. Orbeli, A.V. Lebedinsky, M.P. Brestkin and other outstanding representatives of physiological science. Behind each named name there are discoveries in physiology that are of global significance.
Physiology was included in the curriculum at physical education universities from the first days of their organization. On created by P.F. Lesgaft in 1896 immediately opened a physiology cabinet at the Higher Courses of Physics Education, the first head of which was Academician I.R. Tarkhanov. In subsequent years, physiology was taught here by N.P. Kravkov, A.A. Walter, P.P. Rostovtsev, V.Ya. Chagovets, A.G. Ginetsinsky, A.A. Ukhtomsky, L.A. Orbeli, I.S. Beritov, A.N. Krestovnikov, G.V. Folbort et al.
The rapid development of physiology and the acceleration of scientific and technological progress in the country led to the emergence in the 30s of the 20th century of a new independent section of human physiology - sports physiology, although individual works devoted to the study of body functions during physical activity were published at the end of the 19th century (I O. Rozanov, S.S. Gruzdev, Yu.V. Blazhevich, P.K. Gorbachev, etc.). It should be emphasized that systematic research and teaching of sports physiology began in our country earlier than abroad, and was more targeted. By the way, we note that only in 1989 the General Assembly of the International Union of Physiological Sciences decided to create a commission under it “Physiology of Sports”, although similar commissions and sections in the system of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, the All-Union Physiological Society named after. I.P. Pavlov State Sports Committee of the USSR existed in our country since the 1960s.
The theoretical prerequisites for the emergence and development of sports physiology were created by the fundamental works of I.M. Sechenova, I.P. Pavlova, N.E. Vvedensky, A.A. Ukhtomsky, I.S. Beritashvili, K.M. Bykov and others. However, the systematic study of the physiological foundations of physical culture and sports began much later. Especially great credit for the creation of this section of physiology belongs to L.A. Orbeli and his student A.N. Krestovnikov, and it is inextricably linked with the formation and development of the University of Physical Culture named after. P.F. Lesgaft and its Department of Physiology - the first such department among physical education universities in the country and in the world.
After the creation in 1919 of the Department of Physiology at the Institute of Physical Education. P.F. Lesgaft, this subject was taught by L.A. Orbeli, A.N. Krestovnikov, V.V. Vasilyeva, A.B. Gandelsman, E.K. Zhukov, N.V. Zimkin, A.S. Mozzhukhin, E.B. Sologub, A.S. Solodkov and others. In 1938 A.N. Kreetovnikov published the first “Textbook of Physiology” in our country and in the world for physical education institutes, and in 1939, the monograph “Physiology of Sports”. An important role in the further development of teaching the discipline was played by three editions of the “Textbook of Human Physiology” edited by N.V. Zimkina (1964, 1970, 1975).
The development of sports physiology was largely due to extensive fundamental and applied research on the subject. The development of any science poses more and more new practical problems for representatives of many specialties, to which theory cannot always and immediately provide an unambiguous answer. However, as D. Crowcroft (1970) wittily noted, “...scientific research has one strange feature: it has a habit, sooner or later, of being useful to someone or something.” Analysis of the development of educational and scientific areas of sports physiology clearly confirms this position.
The demands of the theory and practice of physical education and training require physiological science to reveal the peculiarities of the functioning of the body, taking into account the age of people and the patterns of their adaptation to muscular activity. The scientific principles of physical education of children and adolescents are based on the physiological laws of human growth and development at different stages of ontogenesis. In the process of physical education, it is necessary not only to increase motor readiness, but also to form the necessary psychophysiological properties and qualities of the individual, ensuring her readiness for work and active activity in the modern world.
The formation of various organs and systems, motor qualities and skills, their improvement in the process of physical education can be successful subject to the scientifically based use of various means and methods of physical culture, as well as if it is necessary to intensify or reduce muscle loads. In this case, it is necessary to take into account the age-sex and individual characteristics of children, adolescents, mature and elderly people, as well as the reserve capabilities of their body at different stages of individual development. Knowledge of such patterns by specialists will protect the practice of physical education from the use of both insufficient and excessive muscle loads that are dangerous to people’s health.
To date, significant factual materials on sports and age-related physiology have been accumulated, presented in relevant textbooks and teaching aids. However, in recent years, new data has appeared on some sections of the subject that were not included in previous publications. In addition, due to the constantly changing and supplemented curriculum, the content of previously published sections of the discipline does not correspond to modern thematic plans according to which teaching is conducted in physical education universities in Russia. Taking into account the above, the proposed textbook contains systematized, supplemented and, in some cases, new materials within the framework of today's educational and scientific information on the subject. The corresponding sections of the textbook also include the results of the authors’ own research.
In 1998–2000 A.S. Solodkov and E.B. Sologub published three textbooks on general, sports and developmental physiology, which were widely in demand by students, approved by teachers and served as the basis for the preparation of a modern textbook. The textbook they published in 2001 complies with the new program for the discipline and the requirements of the State Standard of Higher Professional Education Russian Federation and includes three parts - general, sports and age physiology.
Despite the large circulation of the first edition (10 thousand copies), two years later the textbook was not available in stores. Therefore, after making some corrections and additions, in 2005 the textbook was republished in the same edition. However, by the end of 2007 it turned out to be impossible to purchase it anywhere. At the same time, the Department of Physiology regularly receives proposals from various regions of the Russian Federation and CIS countries about the need for the next re-edition of the textbook. In addition, the authors have at their disposal some new materials that meet the requirements of the Bologna Process for specialists in physical education and sports.
The prepared third edition of the textbook, along with taking into account and implementing individual comments and suggestions from readers, also includes two new chapters: “Functional state of athletes” and “The influence of the genome on the functional state, performance and health of athletes.” For the last chapter, some materials were presented by N.M., professor of the Department of Biology at St. John's University in New York. Konevoy-Hanson, for which the authors are sincerely grateful to Natalya Mikhailovna.
All comments and suggestions regarding the fifth edition, aimed at improving the quality of the textbook, will be gratefully accepted by the authors.
Part I
General physiology
For successful professional activities, any trainer and teacher needs knowledge of the functions of the human body. Only taking into account the peculiarities of its vital activity can help to properly manage the growth and development of the human body, preserve the health of children and adults, maintain performance even in old age, and rationally use muscle loads in the process of physical education and sports training.
1. Introduction. History of physiology
The date of formation of modern physiology is 1628, when English doctor and physiologist William Harvey published the results of his research on blood circulation in animals.
Physiology the science of the functions and mechanisms of activity of cells, tissues, organs, systems and the entire organism as a whole. A physiological function is the manifestation of the vital activity of the organism, which has adaptive significance.
1.1. The subject of physiology, its connection with other sciences and its significance for physical culture and sports
Physiology as a science is inextricably linked with other disciplines. It is based on knowledge of physics, biophysics and biomechanics, chemistry and biochemistry, general biology, genetics, histology, cybernetics, anatomy. In turn, physiology is the basis of medicine, psychology, pedagogy, sociology, theory and methods of physical education. In the process of development of physiological science from general physiology various private sections: labor physiology, physiology...