First World War 1914--1918 lasted 4 years, 3 months and 10 days, 33 states participated in it (the total number of independent states is 59) with a population of more than 1.5 billion people (87% of the planet's population). More than 10 million were killed and died from wounds, more than 20 million people were injured and maimed. During military operations, tank and chemical troops took part for the first time, aviation and submarine fleet.
Causes of the war. War 1914-1918 was the result of a sharp aggravation of contradictions between the major powers: in connection with attempts to revise the results of what ended at the beginning of the 20th century. the colonial division of the world, in connection with the fate of the disintegrating Ottoman Empire, etc.
WWII arose as a result of the general crisis of capitalism and was a consequence of the unevenness of its development. It was an aggressive war, unjust between the 2 largest blocs of countries: the Austro-German bloc and the Entente. The main contradiction that accelerated the outbreak of the war was the Anglo-German one (it was generally key at the beginning of the 20th century). Germany sought to defeat England, deprive it of its maritime power and divide its rich colonies, depriving it of its natural borders. England sought to preserve its naval and colonial power, defeat Germany as a competitor in the world market and suppress its claims to redistribute the colonies. A-B hoped to capture Serbia and Montenegro and take away part of the territory from Russia. Russia sought free access of the fleet through the Bosporus and Dardanelles to the Mediterranean Sea. Türkiye, with the support of Germany, laid claim to Russian Transcaucasia.
Causes of the war: 1. The struggle of military political blocs (In 1882, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy signed an agreement on the creation of the Triple Alliance. Germany played a leading role in it; in 1907, the Entente military bloc was formed, consisting of Great Britain, France and Russia. It was founded in opposition to the Triple Alliance.) for world domination, sphere of influence and colonies, for world markets.
- 2. Reason: assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand
- 1. campaign of 1914 (the initiative was firmly retained by the countries of the Triple Alliance, but without achieving serious successes. Germany attacks France. The war became protracted, which was not in favor of Germany, which fought on 2 fronts);
- 2. campaigns of 1915 - 1916 (in general, the campaigns led to the weakened power of the Quadruple Alliance. There was a clear turning point in favor of the Entente. But it is obvious that the final victory required large concentrations of forces. The war is becoming more fierce);
- 3. campaign of 1917 (the United States entered the war on the side of the Entente. However, decisive success was not achieved on any front: due to the revolution of the situation in Russia and the lack of coordination in military operations within the Entente);
- 4. 1918 (general offensive of the Entente on all fronts. End of the war). The war ended with the Compiègne Armistice: Germany cleared the occupied territories, Germ. the fleet was disarmed. The resources of the countries of the Fourth Union have been depleted; Russia suffered huge losses.
WWII is not a law: it could have been avoided if the previous crises (2 Marakansky and others) had ended in Russia’s favor.
“Worldwide” - because military theater actions - the whole world (Mesopotamia, Japan, Palestine; all oceans). “First” - because the special nature of the war (redivision of the world within the entire planet - imperialist in-on; technical point: there were 3 or more lines of defense, which were very difficult to break through, because there was no equipment yet, and tanks only performed the function of breaking through the defense ; during 4 years of war the front line did not change much); There were no military defeats for the parties: the countries of the Fourth Union ran out of resources and the armies collapsed.
Results of the First World War
The First World War is one of the longest, bloodiest and most significant in consequences in human history. It lasted more than four years. It was attended by 33 countries out of 59 that had state sovereignty at that time. The population of the warring countries amounted to over 1.5 billion people, that is, about 87% of all inhabitants of the Earth. A total of 73.5 million people were put under arms. More than 10 million were killed and 20 million were wounded. Casualties among the civilian population who suffered from epidemics, famine, cold and other wartime disasters also numbered in the tens of millions.
The shortcomings and miscalculations of the peace settlement after the First World War largely paved the way for the Second World War. The tragedy that befell humanity in the middle of the 20th century cast a shadow of oblivion on the First World War. Meanwhile, she left a deep mark on modern history. Over time this becomes more and more obvious. The First World War changed people's habits and morals, making them more tolerant of state forms violence and sowed the seeds of future international conflicts, which have sprouted into bloody clashes in our time, for example in Yugoslavia in the early 90s.
Wartime needs forced the governments of the warring countries to resort to state regulation of industrial and agricultural production, rationing of prices and consumption, distribution of labor resources and goods, and dosing of socially significant information. All this not only expanded the functions of the state, but actually placed it above society. Here undoubtedly lies the source of the strengthening of totalitarian tendencies in the life of countries and peoples in the middle of the 20th century.
The experience of the First World War was largely the basis for theorists and practitioners of not only the fascist command economy in Germany and Italy, but also the “socialist planned economy” in the USSR. Directly or indirectly, it also influenced the experience of government regulation in democratic countries, for example, the development of the “New Deal” in the United States. Only as a result of liberal reforms and transformations that swept the world in the last third of our century, humanity is gradually parting with this heritage.
A civil war is a violent armed struggle for power between different social groups. A civil war is always a tragedy, turmoil, the decomposition of a social organism that has not found the strength to cope with the disease that has struck it, the collapse of statehood, a social catastrophe. The Russian Civil War is controversial, and most questions about its history have no generally accepted answers.
When did the Civil War start? What stages are highlighted in it? Historians have different opinions: some attribute the beginning of the war to spring-summer 1917, considering the July events in Petrograd and the “Kornilov revolt” as its first acts; others tend to associate it with October Revolution, the coming to power of the Bolsheviks. Most researchers believe that before the summer of 1918 it was impossible to talk about the Civil War in the exact sense of the word: the events mentioned were only its prologue, prehistory. There are disagreements in determining the end date of the war. Most often, it is recognized in 1922, and the entire period since the end of 1920 is assessed as the time of its last outbreaks. There are four stages of the war: summer-autumn 1918 (stage of escalation: rebellion of the White Czechs, landings of the Entente in the North and Japan, England, USA - in the Far East, formation of anti-Soviet centers in the Volga region, the Urals, Siberia, the North Caucasus , Don, execution of the family of the last Russian Tsar, announcement Soviet republic a single military camp); autumn 1918 - spring 1919 (stage of increased foreign military intervention: annulment of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty, intensification of the Red and White Terror); spring 1919 - spring 1920 (stage of military confrontation between the regular Red and White armies: campaigns of the troops of A.V. Kolchak, A.I. Denikin, N.N. Yudenich and their reflection, from the second half of 1919 - decisive successes Red Army); summer-autumn 1920 (the stage of the military defeat of the Whites: the war with Poland, the defeat of P.P. Wrangel). What are the reasons Civil War? Who is new to her in her unleashing? Representatives white movement The blame was placed on the Bolsheviks, who tried to forcefully destroy the centuries-old institutions of private property, overcome the natural inequality of people, and impose a dangerous utopia on society. The Bolsheviks and their supporters, Soviet historians, considered the overthrown exploiting classes to be guilty of the Civil War, who, in order to preserve their privileges and wealth, unleashed a bloody massacre against the working people. Today, historians are trying to overcome the extreme points of view of contemporaries and participants in the events. Many admit that Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. needed deep reforms, but the authorities and society showed their inability to solve them in a timely and fair manner. The authorities did not want to listen to society; society treated the authorities with contempt. Calls for struggle prevailed, drowning out timid voices in support of cooperation. The guilt of the main political parties in this sense seems obvious: they preferred division and unrest to agreement.
What social forces and programs collided with the Civil War? There are two main camps - red and white. In the latter, a very peculiar place was occupied by the so-called third force - “counter-revolutionary democracy”, or “democratic revolution”, which from the end of 1918 declared the need to fight both the Bolsheviks and the generals’ dictatorship. The Red Movement relied on the support of the bulk of the working class and the poorest peasantry. The social basis of the white movement was the officers, bureaucrats, nobility, bourgeoisie, and individual representatives of workers and peasants. The party that expressed the position of the Reds were the Bolsheviks. The party composition of the white movement is heterogeneous: Black Hundred-monarchist, liberal, socialist parties. Program goals of the red movement: preservation and approval Soviet power throughout Russia, the suppression of anti-Soviet forces, the strengthening of the dictatorship of the proletariat as a condition for building a socialist society. The programmatic goals of the white movement were not as clearly formulated. There was a sharp struggle over issues of the future state structure (republic or monarchy), about land (restoration of landownership or recognition of the results of land redistribution), etc. In general, the white movement advocated the overthrow of Soviet power, the power of the Bolsheviks, the restoration of a united and indivisible Russia, the convocation people's assembly on the basis of universal suffrage to determine the future of the country, recognition of private property rights, carrying out land reform, guaranteeing the fundamental rights and freedoms of citizens.
Why did the Bolsheviks win the Civil War? On the one hand, serious mistakes made by the leaders of the white movement played a role (they failed to avoid moral degeneration, overcome internal disunity, create an effective power structure, offer an attractive agrarian program, convince the national outskirts that the slogan of a united and indivisible Russia does not contradict their interests, etc.). On the other hand, the Bolsheviks were able to use centuries of accumulated dissatisfaction with the old order, mobilize the masses, subordinate them to a single will and control, offer attractive slogans for the redistribution of land, nationalization of industry, self-determination of nations, create combat-ready armed forces, and rely on the economic and human potential of the central regions of Russia.
What are the results and consequences of the Civil War? The Bolsheviks won a military-political victory: the resistance of the White Army was suppressed, Soviet power was established throughout the country, including in most national regions, conditions were created for strengthening the dictatorship of the proletariat and the implementation of socialist transformations. The price of this victory was huge human losses (more than 15 million people killed, died of hunger and disease), mass emigration (more than 2.5 million people), economic devastation, the tragedy of entire social groups (officers, Cossacks, intelligentsia, nobility, clergy and etc.), society’s addiction to violence and terror, the rupture of historical and spiritual traditions, the split into reds and whites.
In the First World War, the Entente countries (England, France and Russia) opposed the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy), but in 1915 Italy left the Union and joined the Entente. The war was about changing state borders and redistributing colonies. 38 states took part in the war, including 34 on the Entente side.
- 1917 - As a result of the revolution in Russia, the monarchy was abolished. Finland gained independence.
- 1918 - the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, the following were formed: Czechoslovakia (the Austrian “crown lands” were transferred to it - Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia), Austria and Hungary; South Tyrol went to Italy, Bukovina went to Romania.
Formation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (united Serbia, Montenegro and the former South Slavic territories of Austria-Hungary - Croatia, Slovenia, Dalmatia and part of Bosnia and Herzegovina).
Overthrow of the monarchy in Germany.
Poland gained independence.
According to the Treaty of Versailles, the following territories were ceded to Germany: Alsace and Lorraine to France; management of the Saarland was transferred for 15 years to a commission of the League of Nations, which, in turn, transferred the Saarland to France. The cities of Eupen and Malmedy went to Belgium, Northern Schleswig to Denmark; Poznan and part of East and West Prussia, as well as part of Silesia - to Poland; Gulchinsky district and other part of Silesia - to Czechoslovakia. Germany renounced the rights to the city of Memel (Klaipeda), which was transferred to Lithuania in 1923; Danzig (Gdansk) was turned into a free city under the leadership of the League of Nations.
States that emerged after the First World War in Europe
Germany lost its overseas possessions in Africa and Oceania, covering an area of about 3 million km2, with a population of 13 million people. According to the Yuryev Treaty (between the RSFSR and Finland), Finland returned the Repol and Porosozersk volosts to Karelia in exchange for the area of the city of Pechenga and part of the Rybachy Peninsula. Romania captured Bessarabia.
Iceland, which was a colony of Denmark until 1918, was declared an independent state, and the Danish-Icelandic union was concluded.
Anti-Hitler coalition-- a union of states and peoples who fought in World War II against the aggressive bloc of countries of the Nazi bloc: Hitler's Germany, fascist Italy, militaristic Japan and their satellites. The anti-Hitler coalition was not a formal association, and the contribution of its participants in the fight against fascism was extremely uneven - some participants carried out active military operations with Germany and its allies, others helped them with supplies of military products, and others participated in the war only nominally. The number of participants in the coalition increased during the war, including due to the withdrawal of a number of countries from the Axis bloc and their transition to the coalition, and by the end of the war with Japan, 53 states of the world were at war with Germany and its allies.
The anti-Hitler coalition was formed on the basis of the coalition of the “Western Allies” after the German invasion of Poland in 1939, and became widespread in 1941 - after the support of the United States and Great Britain, which was subjected to a German attack Soviet Union and the entry of the United States into the war, subject to Japanese attack.
On June 28, 1914, a Serbian student from the national terrorist organization “Black Hand” Gavrilo Princip shot and killed the heir to the Austrian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife. It happened in a Bosnian town Sarajevo, where the Archduke arrived for the maneuvers of the Austrian troops. Bosnia at that time still remained part of Austria-Hungary, and Serbian nationalists considered part of the Bosnian territory, including Sarajevo, theirs. With the assassination of the Archduke, the nationalists wanted to reassert their claims.
Heir to the throne Archduke Ferdinand and his wife Archduchess Sophia before the assassination attempt in Sarajevo
As a result, Austria-Hungary and Germany received an extremely convenient opportunity to defeat Serbia and gain a foothold in the Balkans. The main question now is whether Russia, its patron, will stand up for Serbia. But in Russia, just at that time, a major reorganization of the army was underway, which was planned to be completed only by 1917. Therefore, in Berlin and Vienna they hoped that the Russians would not risk getting involved in a serious conflict. Still, Germany and Austria-Hungary discussed the plan of action for almost a month. Only on July 23, Austria-Hungary handed Serbia an ultimatum with a number of demands, which boiled down to the complete cessation of all anti-Austrian activities, including propaganda. Two days were given to fulfill the terms of the ultimatum.
Russia advised the Serbian allies to accept the ultimatum, and they agreed to fulfill nine of its ten conditions. They only refused to allow Austrian representatives to investigate the assassination of the Archduke. But Austria-Hungary, pushed by Germany, was determined to fight even if the Serbs accepted the entire ultimatum. On July 28, she declared war on Serbia and immediately began military operations, shelling the Serbian capital Belgrade.
The very next day, Nicholas II signed a decree on general mobilization, but almost immediately received a telegram from William II. The Kaiser assured the Tsar that he would do his best to “calm down” the Austrians. Nicholas canceled his decree, but Foreign Minister S.N. Sazonov managed to convince him, and on July 30 Russia nevertheless announced general mobilization.
In response, Germany itself began a general mobilization, while simultaneously demanding that Russia cancel its military preparations within 12 hours. Having received a decisive refusal, Germany declared war on Russia on August 1. It is characteristic that even the day before the Germans informed France of their intention, insisting that it observe neutrality. However, the French, bound by a treaty with Russia, also announced mobilization. Then on August 3, Germany declared War on France and Belgium. The next day, England, which initially showed some hesitation, declared war on Germany. So the Sarajevo murder led to world war. Subsequently, 34 states on the side of the opposite bloc (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria) were drawn into it.
· Causes of the war:
1. Exacerbation of all contradictions in capitalist countries;
2. Creation of two opposing blocks;
3. Weak peace-loving forces (weak labor movement);
4. The desire to divide the world;
· Nature of the war:
For everyone, the war was of an aggressive nature, but for Serbia it was fair, because the conflict with it (presentation of an ultimatum on July 23, 1914) to Austria-Hungary was only a pretext for the start of military action.
· State goals:
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Germany |
Sought to establish world domination |
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Austria-Hungary |
Control of the Balkans => control of ship traffic in the Adriatic Sea => enslave the Slavic countries. |
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Sought to seize Turkish possessions, as well as Mesopotamia and Palestine with their oil possessions |
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She sought to weaken Germany, return Alsace and Lorraine (lands); seize the coal basin, claims to be the hegemon in Europe. |
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She sought to undermine Germany's position and ensure free passage through the Vasbor and Dardanelles Straits in the Mediterranean Sea. Strengthen influence in the Balkans (by weakening German influence on Turkey). |
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She sought to leave the Balkans under her influence, to seize Crimea and Iran (raw material base). |
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Dominance in the Mediterranean and Southern Europe. |
The war can be divided into three periods:
During the first period (1914-1916), the Central Powers achieved superiority on land, while the Allies dominated the sea. This period ended with negotiations for a mutually acceptable peace, but each side still hoped for victory.
In the next period (1917), two events occurred that led to an imbalance of power: the first was the entry of the United States into the war on the side of the Entente, the second was the revolution in Russia and its exit from the war.
The third period (1918) began with the last major offensive of the Central Powers in the west. The failure of this offensive was followed by revolutions in Austria-Hungary and Germany and the capitulation of the Central Powers.
· The first main stage of the war. The Allied forces initially included Russia, France, Great Britain, Serbia, Montenegro and Belgium and enjoyed overwhelming naval superiority. The Entente had 316 cruisers, while the Germans and Austrians had 62. But the latter found a powerful countermeasure - submarines. By the beginning of the war, the armies of the Central Powers numbered 6.1 million people; Entente army - 10.1 million people. The Central Powers had an advantage in internal communications, which allowed them to quickly transfer troops and equipment from one front to another. In the long term, the Entente countries had superior resources of raw materials and food, especially since the British fleet paralyzed Germany’s ties with overseas countries, from where copper, tin and nickel were supplied to German enterprises before the war. Thus, in the event of a protracted war, the Entente could count on victory. Germany, knowing this, relied on a lightning war - “blitzkrieg”.
The Germans put into effect the Schlieffen plan, which proposed to ensure rapid success in the West by attacking France with large forces through Belgium. After the defeat of France, Germany hoped, together with Austria-Hungary, by transferring the liberated troops, to deliver a decisive blow in the East. But this plan was not implemented. One of the main reasons for his failure was the sending of part of the German divisions to Lorraine in order to block the enemy invasion of southern Germany. On the night of August 4, the Germans invaded Belgium. It took them several days to break the resistance of the defenders of the fortified areas of Namur and Liege, which blocked the route to Brussels, but thanks to this delay, the British transported an almost 90,000-strong expeditionary force across the English Channel to France (August 9-17). The French gained time to form 5 armies that held back the German advance. However, on August 20, the German army occupied Brussels, then forced the British to leave Mons (August 23), and on September 3, the army of General A. von Kluck found itself 40 km from Paris. Continuing the offensive, the Germans crossed the Marne River and stopped along the Paris-Verdun line on September 5. The commander of the French forces, General Jacques Joffre, having formed two new armies from the reserves, decided to launch a counteroffensive.
The First Battle of the Marne began on September 5 and ended on September 12. 6 Anglo-French and 5 German armies took part in it. The Germans were defeated. One of the reasons for their defeat was the absence of several divisions on the right flank, which had to be transferred to the eastern front. The French offensive on the weakened right flank made the withdrawal of the German armies to the north, to the line of the Aisne River, inevitable. The battles in Flanders on the Yser and Ypres rivers from October 15 to November 20 were also unsuccessful for the Germans. As a result, the main ports on the English Channel remained in Allied hands, ensuring communication between France and England. Paris was saved, and the Entente countries had time to mobilize resources. The war in the West took on a positional character; Germany’s hope of defeating and withdrawing France from the war turned out to be untenable.
There remained hopes that on the Eastern Front the Russians would be able to crush the armies of the Central Powers bloc. On August 17, Russian troops entered East Prussia and began to push the Germans towards Konigsberg. The German generals Hindenburg and Ludendorff were entrusted with leading the counteroffensive. Taking advantage of the mistakes of the Russian command, the Germans managed to drive a “wedge” between the two Russian armies, defeat them on August 26-30 near Tannenberg and drive them out of East Prussia. Austria-Hungary did not act so successfully, abandoning the intention to quickly defeat Serbia and concentrating large forces between the Vistula and the Dniester. But the Russians launched an offensive in a southern direction, broke through the defenses of the Austro-Hungarian troops and, taking several thousand people prisoner, occupied the Austrian province of Galicia and part of Poland. The advance of Russian troops created a threat to Silesia and Poznan, important industrial areas for Germany. Germany was forced to transfer additional forces from France. But an acute shortage of ammunition and food stopped the advance of Russian troops. The offensive cost Russia enormous casualties, but undermined the power of Austria-Hungary and forced Germany to maintain significant forces on the Eastern Front.
Back in August 1914, Japan declared war on Germany. In October 1914, Türkiye entered the war on the side of the Central Powers bloc. At the outbreak of war, Italy, a member of the Triple Alliance, declared its neutrality on the grounds that neither Germany nor Austria-Hungary had been attacked. But at secret London negotiations in March-May 1915, the Entente countries promised to satisfy Italy's territorial claims during the post-war peace settlement if Italy came on their side. On May 23, 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary. And on August 28, 1916 - Germany on western front The British were defeated in the second battle of Ypres. Here, during battles that lasted for a month (April 22 - May 25, 1915), chemical weapons were used for the first time. After this, poisonous gases (chlorine, phosgene, and later mustard gas) began to be used by both warring sides. The large-scale Dardanelles landing operation, a naval expedition that the Entente countries equipped at the beginning of 1915 with the goal of taking Constantinople, opening the Dardanelles and Bosphorus straits for communication with Russia through the Black Sea, bringing Turkey out of the war and winning the Balkan states to the side of the allies, also ended in defeat. On the Eastern Front, by the end of 1915, German and Austro-Hungarian troops ousted the Russians from almost all of Galicia and from most of the territory of Russian Poland. But it was never possible to force Russia to a separate peace. In October 1915, Bulgaria declared war on Serbia, after which the Central Powers, together with their new Balkan ally, crossed the borders of Serbia, Montenegro and Albania. Having captured Romania and covered the Balkan flank, they turned against Italy.
Balance of forces at the beginning of the war
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Army strength after mobilization (thousands of people) |
Light guns |
Heavy guns |
Aircraft |
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Great Britain |
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Total: Entente |
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Germany |
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Austria-Hungary |
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Total: Central Powers |
War at sea. Control of the sea allowed the British to freely move troops and equipment from all parts of their empire to France. They kept sea lines of communication open for US merchant ships. German colonies were captured, and German trade through sea routes was suppressed. In general, the German fleet - except for the submarine one - was blocked in its ports. Only occasionally did small flotillas emerge to strike British seaside towns and attack Allied merchant ships. During the entire war, only one major naval battle took place - when the German fleet entered the North Sea and unexpectedly met with the British one off the Danish coast of Jutland. The Battle of Jutland May 31 - June 1, 1916 led to heavy losses on both sides: the British lost 14 ships, about 6,800 people killed, captured and wounded; the Germans, who considered themselves victors, had 11 ships and about 3,100 people killed and wounded. However, the British forced the German fleet to retreat to Kiel, where it was effectively blocked. The German fleet no longer appeared on the high seas, and Great Britain remained the mistress of the seas.
Having taken a dominant position at sea, the Allies gradually cut off. The Central Powers from overseas sources of raw materials and food. Under international law, neutral countries, such as the United States, could sell goods that were not considered “war contraband” to other neutral countries, such as the Netherlands or Denmark, from where these goods could also be delivered to Germany. However, warring countries usually did not bind themselves to adherence to international law, and Great Britain had so expanded the list of goods considered smuggled that virtually nothing was allowed through its barriers in the North Sea.
The naval blockade forced Germany to resort to drastic measures. Her only effective means a submarine fleet remained at sea, capable of easily bypassing surface barriers and sinking merchant ships of neutral countries that supplied the allies. It was the turn of the Entente countries to accuse the Germans of violating international law, which obliged them to rescue the crews and passengers of torpedoed ships.
On February 18, 1915, the German government declared the waters around the British Isles a military zone and warned of the danger of ships from neutral countries entering them. On May 7, 1915, a German submarine torpedoed and sank the ocean-going steamer Lusitania with hundreds of passengers on board, including 115 US citizens. President William Wilson protested, and the United States and Germany exchanged harsh diplomatic notes.
Verdun and Somme. Germany was ready to make some concessions at sea and look for a way out of the impasse in actions on land. In April 1916, British troops had already suffered a serious defeat at Kut el-Amar in Mesopotamia, where 13,000 people surrendered to the Turks. On the continent, Germany was preparing for a large-scale offensive operation on Western Front, which was supposed to turn the tide of the war and force France to ask for peace. The ancient fortress of Verdun served as a key point of French defense. After an unprecedented artillery bombardment, 12 German divisions went on the offensive on February 21, 1916. The Germans advanced slowly until the beginning of July, but did not achieve their intended goals. The Verdun “meat grinder” clearly did not live up to the expectations of the German command. During the spring and summer of 1916, operations on the Eastern and Southwestern Fronts were of great importance. In March, Russian troops, at the request of the allies, carried out an operation near Lake Naroch, which significantly influenced the course of hostilities in France. The German command was forced to stop attacks on Verdun for some time and, keeping 0.5 million people on the Eastern Front, transfer an additional part of the reserves here. At the end of May 1916, the Russian High Command launched an offensive on the Southwestern Front. During the fighting, under the command of A.A. Brusilov, it was possible to achieve a breakthrough of the Austro-German troops to a depth of 80-120 km. Brusilov's troops occupied part of Galicia and Bukovina and entered the Carpathians. For the first time in the entire previous period of trench warfare, the front was broken through. If this offensive had been supported by other fronts, it would have ended in disaster for the Central Powers. To ease the pressure on Verdun, on July 1, 1916, the Allies launched a counterattack on the Somme River. For four months - until November - there were non-stop attacks. The Anglo-French troops, having lost about 800 thousand people, were unable to break through the German front. Finally, in December, the German command decided to stop the offensive, which cost the lives of 300,000 German soldiers. The 1916 campaign claimed more than 1 million lives, but did not bring tangible results to either side.
Foundations for peace negotiations. At the beginning of the 20th century. The methods of warfare have completely changed. The length of fronts increased significantly, armies fought on fortified lines and launched attacks from trenches, and machine guns and artillery began to play a huge role in offensive battles. New types of weapons were used: tanks, fighters and bombers, submarines, asphyxiating gases, hand grenades. Every tenth resident of the warring country was mobilized, and 10% of the population was engaged in supplying the army. In the warring countries there was almost no place left for ordinary civilian life: everything was subordinated to titanic efforts aimed at maintaining the military machine. The total cost of the war, including property losses, was variously estimated to range from $208 billion to $359 billion. By the end of 1916, both sides were tired of the war, and it seemed that the time had come to begin peace negotiations.
The second main stage of the war. On December 12, 1916, the Central Powers turned to the United States with a request to transmit a note to the allies with a proposal to begin peace negotiations. The Entente rejected this proposal, suspecting that it was made with the aim of destroying the coalition. Moreover, she did not want to talk about a peace that did not include the payment of reparations and recognition of the right of nations to self-determination. President Wilson decided to initiate peace negotiations and on December 18, 1916, asked the warring countries to determine mutually acceptable peace terms.
On December 12, 1916, Germany proposed convening a peace conference. The German civil authorities clearly sought peace, but they were opposed by the generals, especially General Ludendorff, who was confident of victory. The Allies specified their conditions: the restoration of Belgium, Serbia and Montenegro; withdrawal of troops from France, Russia and Romania; reparations; the return of Alsace and Lorraine to France; liberation of subject peoples, including Italians, Poles, Czechs, elimination of the Turkish presence in Europe.
The Allies did not trust Germany and therefore did not take the idea of peace negotiations seriously. Germany intended to take part in the peace conference in December 1916, relying on the benefits of its military position. It ended with the Allies signing secret agreements designed to defeat the Central Powers. Under these agreements, Great Britain claimed the German colonies and part of Persia; France was to gain Alsace and Lorraine, as well as establish control on the left bank of the Rhine; Russia acquired Constantinople; Italy - Trieste, Austrian Tyrol, most of Albania; Turkey's possessions were to be divided among all allies.
US entry into the war. At the beginning of the war, public opinion in the United States was divided: some openly sided with the Allies; others - such as Irish Americans who were hostile to England and German Americans - supported Germany. Over time, government officials and ordinary citizens became increasingly inclined to side with the Entente. Several factors contributed to this, and, above all, the propaganda of the Entente countries and the submarine war of Germany.
On January 22, 1917, President Wilson outlined peace terms acceptable to the United States in the Senate. The main one boiled down to the demand for “peace without victory,” i.e. without annexations and indemnities; others included the principles of equality of peoples, the right of nations to self-determination and representation, freedom of the seas and trade, the reduction of armaments, and the rejection of the system of rival alliances. If peace were made on the basis of these principles, Wilson argued, a world organization of states could be created that would guarantee security for all peoples. On January 31, 1917, the German government announced the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare with the aim of disrupting enemy communications. The submarines blocked the Entente's supply lines and put the Allies in an extremely difficult position. There was growing hostility toward Germany among Americans, since the blockade of Europe from the West foreshadowed troubles for the United States as well. In case of victory, Germany could establish control over the entire Atlantic Ocean.
Along with the above-mentioned circumstances, other motives also pushed the United States to war on the side of its allies. US economic interests were directly linked to the Entente countries, as military orders led to the rapid growth of American industry. In 1916, the warlike spirit was spurred by plans to develop combat training programs. Anti-German sentiment among North Americans increased even more after the publication on March 1, 1917 of Zimmermann's secret dispatch of January 16, 1917, intercepted by British intelligence and transferred to Wilson. German Foreign Minister A. Zimmermann offered Mexico the states of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona if it supported Germany's actions in response to the US entry into the war on the side of the Entente. By the beginning of April, anti-German sentiment in the United States had reached such an intensity that Congress voted on April 6, 1917 to declare war on Germany.
Russia's exit from the war. In February 1917, a revolution occurred in Russia. Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate the throne. The Provisional Government (March - November 1917) could no longer conduct active military operations on the fronts, since the population was extremely tired of the war. On December 15, 1917, the Bolsheviks, who took power in November 1917, signed an armistice agreement with the Central Powers at the cost of huge concessions. Three months later, on March 3, 1918, the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty was concluded. Russia renounced its rights to Poland, Estonia, Ukraine, part of Belarus, Latvia, Transcaucasia and Finland. In total, Russia lost about 1 million square meters. km. She was also obliged to pay Germany an indemnity in the amount of 6 billion marks.
· The third main stage of the war. The Germans had ample reason to be optimistic. The German leadership used the weakening of Russia, and then its withdrawal from the war, to replenish resources. Now it could transfer the eastern army to the west and concentrate troops on the main directions of attack. The Allies, not knowing where the attack would come from, were forced to strengthen positions along the entire front. American aid was late. In France and Great Britain, defeatist sentiments grew with alarming force. On October 24, 1917, Austro-Hungarian troops broke through the Italian front near Caporetto and defeated the Italian army.
German offensive of 1918. On the foggy morning of March 21, 1918, the Germans launched a massive attack on British positions near Saint-Quentin. The British were forced to retreat almost to Amiens, and its loss threatened to break the Anglo-French united front. The fate of Calais and Boulogne hung in the balance.
However, the offensive cost Germany major losses - both human and material. The German troops were exhausted, their supply system was shaken. The Allies managed to neutralize German submarines by creating convoy and anti-submarine defense systems. At the same time, the blockade of the Central Powers was carried out so effectively that food shortages began to be felt in Austria and Germany.
Soon the long-awaited American aid began to arrive in France. The ports from Bordeaux to Brest were filled with American troops. By the beginning of the summer of 1918, about 1 million American soldiers had landed in France.
On July 15, 1918, the Germans made their last attempt at a breakthrough. The second decisive battle of the Marne unfolded. In the event of a breakthrough, the French would have to abandon Reims, which, in turn, could lead to an Allied retreat along the entire front. In the first hours of the offensive, German troops advanced, but not as quickly as expected.
The last Allied offensive. On July 18, 1918, a counterattack by American and French troops began in order to relieve pressure on Chateau-Thierry. At the Battle of Amiens on August 8, German troops suffered a heavy defeat, and this undermined their morale. Previously, German Chancellor Prince von Hertling believed that by September the Allies would sue for peace. “We hoped to take Paris by the end of July,” he recalled. - That's what we thought on July fifteenth. And on the eighteenth, even the greatest optimists among us realized that everything was lost.” Some military personnel convinced Kaiser Wilhelm II that the war was lost, but Ludendorff refused to admit defeat.
The Allied offensive began on other fronts as well. Ethnic unrest flared up in Austria-Hungary - not without the influence of the Allies, who encouraged the desertion of Poles, Czechs and South Slavs. The Central Powers mustered their remaining forces to hold off the expected invasion of Hungary. The path to Germany was open.
Tanks and massive artillery shelling were important factors in the offensive. At the beginning of August 1918, attacks on key German positions intensified. In their Memoirs Ludendorff called August 8, the beginning of the Battle of Amiens, “a black day for the German army.” The German front was torn apart: entire divisions surrendered into captivity almost without a fight. By the end of September even Ludendorff was ready to capitulate. On September 29, Bulgaria signed an armistice. A month later, Türkiye capitulated, and on November 3, Austria-Hungary.
To negotiate peace in Germany, a moderate government was formed headed by Prince Max B., who already on October 5, 1918 invited President Wilson to begin the negotiation process. In the last week of October, the Italian army launched a general offensive against Austria-Hungary. By October 30, the resistance of the Austrian troops was broken. Italian cavalry and armored vehicles carried out a swift raid behind enemy lines and captured the Austrian headquarters. On October 27, Emperor Charles I made an appeal for a truce, and on October 29, 1918 he agreed to conclude peace on any terms.
Brief conclusions. The impetus for the outbreak of World War I was the assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Franz Ferdinand, in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. But Russia intervened in the events and began the mobilization of its army. Germany demanded its end. When Russia did not respond to her ultimatum, Germany declared war on August 1, and later on France. Then Great Britain and Japan entered the war. The First World War began. The German command believed that after the defeat of France, the army should have been transferred to the east against Russia. Initially, the offensive in France developed successfully. But then some of the German troops were transferred to the Eastern Front, where the Russian army began its offensive. The French took advantage of this and stopped the advance of the German army on the Marne River. The Western Front was formed. Soon the Ottoman Empire entered the war on the side of the Triple Alliance. Military operations against it began in Transcaucasia, Mesopotamia, and the Sinai Peninsula.
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Progress of hostilities |
Features of war |
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On August 4, the Germans invaded Belgium. Continuing the offensive, the Germans crossed the Marne River and stopped along the Paris-Verdun line on September 5. 2 million people took part in the Battle of Verdun. 5 German and 6 Anglo-French English. It had an oppositional character. On August 4, the Russian army invaded the aisles of Germany. The German army is defeated. On August 23, Japan begins the war. New fronts formed in Transcaucasia and Mesopotamia, on the Sinai Peninsula. |
The war is waged on 2 fronts and takes on a positional character (i.e. protracted) |
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On the Western Front, near Ypres, chemical weapons were used for the first time, namely chlorine. In total, 15 thousand people died. |
Use of chemical weapons |
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Germany shifts its efforts to the western front. The main theater (place) of military operations was the city of Verdun. The operation was called the Verdun meat grinder. Lasted from February 21 to December, and 1 million people died. There is an active offensive Russian army, the strategic initiative was in the hands of the Entente. |
Bloody battles that depleted the resources of all the warring countries. The situation of the workers worsened, and revolutionary actions by soldiers grew, especially in Russia. |
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The USA enters the war. In October, Russia left the war. |
Revolution of Russia. |
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By the spring of 1918, the Anglo-French troops had a significant advantage under the German armies. The Entente troops used tanks for the first time. German troops were driven out of the territory of France and Belgium, and the soldiers of Austria-Hungary refused to fight. On November 3, 1918, a revolution took place in Germany itself, and on November 11, “PEACE” was signed in the Compiegne Forest. |
Use of tanks. Strong revolutionary uprisings took place in all the warring countries. |
The First World War in world history is conventionally divided into three periods, or stages:
- Maneuverable - summer 1914 - summer 1915;
- Positional – 1916 – 1917;
- Final – 1917 – November 1918.
The maneuver period of the First World War was named this way for a reason, since the fighting that began in the summer of 1914 could not be called either retreat or offensive; the warring parties carried out a number of maneuvers that helped them gain a foothold in their positions, leaving the enemy with the most unsuccessful ones from the point of view of strategy and battleground tactics.
The maneuvers undertaken did not involve active combat operations, but they still existed, since on the Eastern front the Austrian forces very actively tried to resist the Russians, and in the west the Germans opposed the British and French, while two Russian armies of generals Samsonov marched across the territory of East Prussia and Rehnenkampf. Fearing that they would be encircled during this maneuver, the German command, in turn, undertook a retaliatory maneuver - transferring part of the troops from near the Marne to the eastern front.
The support received made it possible to stop the Russians, but the British and French, having learned about it, intensified their offensive in the direction of the Marne and broke through the front, trying to encircle the German army. In principle, both maneuvers had very good chances of success, but due to the complete incompetence of the command and the lack of speed of action necessary in this case, both of them did not end quite as the Entente allies expected. At the same time, the Battle of Galicia, which began in the fall of 1914, ended in the complete defeat of the German army, again due to the fact that the Russians undertook a completely unexpected maneuver for the Germans, approaching the enemy where he least expected it. Only towards the end of autumn did the Germans manage to stop the breakthrough of Russian troops in Poland and prevent the transfer of hostilities to German territory. As a result of a very successful maneuver by the enemy, the front was held by Russian soldiers only due to personal courage and bravery, which also had to be demonstrated in the battles with the Turks in the Caucasus that followed in December of the same year.
Having considered all possible scenarios for the development of events, the German command decided in the spring of 1915 to pay more attention to the Eastern Front, transferring most of the troops in reserve to suppress the military power of Russia, knowing full well that without the support of the latter, neither England nor France would be able to fight for long . in April, the German armies began to actively prepare for an offensive, during which the Germans regained Galicia and Poland, and the Russian troops were forced to retreat; the enemy entered Russian territory. Almost all the lands conquered during the summer-autumn maneuvers of 1914 were lost. A new positional stage has begun in the war.
Position period
By the beginning of this stage, the front was an elongated line between the Baltic and Black Seas. Courland and Finland were completely occupied by German troops, the front line approached Riga, advancing along the Western Dvina, right up to the Dvinsk fortress, some Russian provinces, including Minsk, were occupied by Germany. In some places, the border that ran through Bessarabia extended all the way to Romania, which was still maintaining a neutral position. Since the front line had no irregularities, the armies opposing each other filled it almost completely, in some places even mixing with each other, there was no way to advance further and the armies began to strengthen their own positions, actually moving on to the so-called positional war. At the same time, the obvious failed victory in the east did not please the German command much, so it decided in the following 1916 to send most of its forces to suppress the resistance of the French troops, but in the famous battle of Verdun and in the no less famous Jutland naval battle, the Germans were unable to achieve All the tasks set for themselves, the Entente allies clearly won, losing thousands of soldiers, but not retreating a step back. In the winter of 1916, Germany asked for peace, but this request was rejected, since the peace conditions did not satisfy British, French and even Russian ambitions. The war continued, which meant the quick and complete defeat of exhausted Germany and its weakened allies - Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria and the victory of the Entente, which by this time was receiving significant support from America, which actually ends the positional stage in the war, Germany moves on to a clear retreat .
Final period
At the final stage of hostilities, one important political event occurred that had direct influence on the plans of the allies - the Revolution in Russia and the latter’s premature withdrawal from hostilities by concluding a separate peace with Germany. Neither England nor France expected such actions from Russia and were absolutely unprepared for them, considering them illegal and unlawful, leading to negative consequences for these countries - emboldened Germany tried to gain time and recapture part of the lands captured by the Allies, from which Russian troops were leaving.
A few months before the events mentioned above, in November 1917, the Austro-Hungarian army defeated the Italian allies of the Entente and stood on the approaches to Venice, stopped by the forces of the British and French gathered there. But at the same time, Germany and its allies suffered defeat on all fronts, including the African one, being pressed by an ever-increasing enemy. In March 1918, peace was finally concluded between Germany and Russia, which went down in history as the Brest-Litovsk peace, but this did not save the situation; Germany, in turn, already in the summer asked for peace from its former Entente allies, agreeing to fulfill the conditions they proposed. As a result, on June 28, 1919, Germany and its allies signed the Treaty of Versailles, which ended not only the third period of the First World War, but also its entirety.
1870, sought political and economic dominance on the European continent. Having joined the struggle for colonies only after 1871, Germany wanted the redistribution of the colonial possessions of England, France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Portugal in its favor. Russia, France and Great Britain sought to counteract the hegemonic aspirations of Germany. Why was the Entente formed?
Austria-Hungary, being a multinational empire, was a constant source of instability in Europe due to internal ethnic contradictions. She sought to retain Bosnia and Herzegovina, which she captured in 1908 (see: Bosnian crisis). It opposed Russia, which took on the role of protector of all Slavs in the Balkans, and Serbia.
In the Middle East, the interests of almost all powers collided, striving to achieve the division of the collapsing Ottoman Empire (Turkey). According to the agreements reached between the members of the Entente, at the end of the war, all the straits between the Black and Aegean seas would go to Russia, thus Russia would gain complete control over the Black Sea and Constantinople.
- Germany;
- Austria-Hungary;
- Italy.
Italy, however, entered the war in 1915 on the side of the Entente - but Turkey and Bulgaria joined Germany and Austria-Hungary during the war, forming the Quadruple Alliance (or bloc of the Central Powers).
Major events.
Campaign of 1914.
The war unfolded in two main theaters of military operations - in Western and Eastern Europe, as well as in the Balkans, Northern Italy (from May 1915), in the Caucasus and the Middle East (from November 1914), in the colonies of European states - in Africa, in China, in Oceania.
Beginning of the war
On August 1, Germany declared war on Russia, and on the same day the Germans invaded Luxembourg without any declaration of war.
On August 2, German troops finally occupied Luxembourg, and Belgium was given an ultimatum to allow German armies to enter the border with France. Only 12 hours were given for reflection.
On August 3, Germany declared war on France, accusing it of “organized attacks and aerial bombardments of Germany” and “violating Belgian neutrality.”
On August 3, Belgium refused Germany's ultimatum. Germany declares war on Belgium.
On August 4, German troops poured across the Belgian border. King Albert of Belgium turned for help to the guarantor countries of Belgian neutrality. London, contrary to its previous statements, sent an ultimatum to Berlin: stop the invasion of Belgium or England will declare war on Germany, to which Berlin declared “betrayal.” After the ultimatum expired, Great Britain declared war on Germany and sent 5.5 divisions to help France.
The First World War has begun.
1915 Campaign
In 1915, Germany decided to make the main attack on the Eastern Front in an attempt to take Russia out of the war.
During the August operation, German troops managed to knock out the 10th Russian Army from East Prussia and encircle the 20th Corps of this army. The Germans were unable to break through the Russian front. The subsequent German offensive in the Prasnysh area suffered a serious setback - in the battle, German troops were defeated and driven back to East Prussia.
In the winter of 1914-1915 there was a battle between the Russians and the Austrians for the passes in the Carpathians. On March 10 (23), the Siege of Przemysl ended - an important Austrian fortress with a garrison of 115 thousand people capitulated.
At the end of April, the Germans struck another powerful blow in East Prussia and at the beginning of May 1915 they broke through the Russian front in the Memel-Libau region. In May, German-Austrian troops, having concentrated superior forces in the Gorlice area, managed to break through the Russian front in Galicia. After this, in order to avoid encirclement, a general strategic retreat of the Russian army from Galicia and Poland began.
1916 campaign
On February 21, 1916, German troops launched an offensive operation in the area of the Verdun fortress, called the Battle of Verdun.
On June 4, 1916, a major offensive operation of the Russian army began, called the Brusilov breakthrough after the front commander A. A. Brusilov. As a result of the offensive operation, the Southwestern Front inflicted a heavy defeat on German and Austro-Hungarian troops in Galicia and Bukovina.
On August 17, 1916, an agreement was concluded between Romania and the four Entente powers.
The military campaign of 1916 was marked by an important event. On May 31 - June 1, the largest naval battle of Jutland took place in the entire war.
1917 campaign
On the Eastern Front, the German army limited itself to only private operations that did not in any way affect the strategic position of Germany: as a result of Operation Albion, German troops captured the islands of Dago and Ezel and forced the Russian fleet to leave the Gulf of Riga.
1918 Campaign
4 October 1918 began the general offensive of the Entente troops on the Western Front. By October 20, German troops were completely driven out to the positions of Hermann, Gunding, Brunhilda, Kriemgilda. The impending catastrophe was foreseen in Germany itself, so on September 29, Hindenburg and Ludendorff announced the need to form a new government. On October 1, the government of the German Empire received its resignation, and on October 3, a cabinet was formed headed by Prince Max of Baden, who had a reputation as a liberal and pacifist among the German bourgeoisie and the Junkers. On October 4, the German government approached the US government with a proposal to begin peace negotiations, based on the “Fourteen Points” set out by Woodrow Wilson in his message to Congress on January 8, 1918. By doing this, the Germans hoped to increase mistrust in the Allied camp.
Results of the war
According to the Treaty of Versailles, the territory of Germany was reduced by 70 thousand square meters. km, it lost all its few colonies; military articles obliged Germany not to introduce conscription, to dissolve all military organizations, not to have modern species weapons, pay reparations. The map of Europe was completely redrawn. With the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian dualist monarchy, the statehood of Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia was formalized, and the independence and borders of Albania, Bulgaria, and Romania were confirmed. Belgium, Denmark, Poland, France and Czechoslovakia regained the lands seized by Germany, receiving part of the original German territories under their control. Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, and Palestine were separated from Turkey and transferred as mandated territories to England and France. The new western border of Soviet Russia was also determined at the Paris Peace Conference (Curzon Line), while the statehood of parts of the former empire was consolidated: Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Finland and Estonia.
Revolution in Russia in 1917: from February to October
Causes:
1) defeats on the fronts of the First World War, the death of millions of Russians;
2) a sharp deterioration in the situation of the people, famine caused by the war;
3) mass discontent, anti-war sentiment, activation of the most radical forces that advocated ending the war;
4) the confrontation between the State Duma and the government intensified.
In the second half of February The capital's food supply has significantly deteriorated due to transport disruptions.
February 23, 1917 riots began. Long lines for bread stretched along the streets of Petrograd (since 1914 this was the name of St. Petersburg). The situation in the city became increasingly tense.
18th of Febuary A strike began at the largest Putilov plant, and was supported by other enterprises.
25 February The strike in Petrograd became general. The government failed to organize a timely suppression of popular unrest.
The turning point was the day of February 26th, when the troops refused to shoot at the rebels and began to go over to their side. The Petrograd garrison went over to the side of the rebels. The transition of the soldiers to the side of the workers participating in the strike, their seizure of the arsenal and the Peter and Paul Fortress meant the victory of the revolution.
March 1 An agreement was concluded between Duma leaders and Soviet leaders on the formation of the Provisional Government. A “dual power” has emerged during the revolution in the country arose two sources of all-Russian power:
1) The Temporary Committee of the State Duma, which consisted of representatives of bourgeois parties and organizations;
2) the body of the insurgent people - the Petrograd Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, which included moderate socialists who stood for cooperation with liberal-bourgeois circles.
March 2, 1917 Nicholas II signed his abdication for himself and for his son Alexei in favor of his brother Mikhail. But Michael also did not dare to become emperor. Thus, the autocracy in Russia fell. In April 1917, Miliukov announced the continuation of the war, but people were not happy with this statement (April crisis) (September 1, 1917, the Provisional Government declared Russia a republic). The Provisional Government declared itself as the highest body of executive and legislative power.
The Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies had power that was not inferior in scope and capabilities to the power of the Provisional Government.
From March to October, the government experienced four crises.
April crisis was provoked by a note from the Minister of Foreign Affairs P.N. Miliukov about Russia's determination to continue the war.
June crisis a demonstration designed to support the policy of the Soviet leadership towards the Provisional Government.
July crisis. Attempted military coup, banning the activities of the Bolsheviks.
In August a new crisis occurred. An attempt to establish a general dictatorship (Kornilovism)
October 24 revolutionary workers and soldiers captured vital facilities in Petrograd. On October 25, in the morning, the Pre-Parliament was dispersed, Kerensky fled from Petrograd. The Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, which opened on the evening of October 25, adopted Lenin's “Appeal to all Citizens of Russia,” which proclaimed the establishment of Soviet power. From 6 o'clock in the evening the Winter Palace, in which the Provisional Government worked, was surrounded, and at about 2 o'clock in the morning it was taken. The October Revolution in Petrograd was almost bloodless. The Bolsheviks' rise to power in Moscow turned out to be much bloodier. The Second Congress of Soviets approved the actions of the Bolsheviks. The Bolshevik L.B. became the Chairman of the Executive Committee of the Soviets. Kamenev, soon replaced by Ya.M. Sverdlov. The government (Council of People's Commissars) was headed by the Bolshevik leader V.I. Lenin. The Congress warmly supported two Bolshevik decrees: on land and peace.
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1. What goals did the powers pursue in the First World War?
Answer: If Germany and Austria-Hungary intended to create a “new Europe”, where the influence of England, France and Russia would be reduced to zero, then the Entente members hoped to eliminate the German threat by dividing the territories of the members of the Triple Alliance into several states.
Wilhelm II's plans included territorial conquests in eastern Europe and the Mediterranean, which could provide the Reich with living space and natural resources. The victory allowed Germany to establish control over the overseas colonies of England and France. In turn, the Vienna cabinet sought, through military success, to prevent the collapse of the dualistic empire and to strengthen its positions in the Balkans and the Carpathians.
The main goal of the British government was to defeat its main competitor, Germany, and restore the international prestige of the British Empire. The French ruling circles dreamed of the return of Alsace and Lorraine, the seizure of the Rhine industrial zone and the elimination of German influence in the Middle East. Finally, Russia claimed territories with a Slavic population within Germany and Austria-Hungary. In addition, Tsar Nicholas II cherished plans to capture Constantinople (Istanbul) and turn the Black Sea into a “Russian lake”.
The offensive of the Entente troops on the Western Front.
4. What is Russia’s contribution to the victory of the Entente?
Answer: Russia’s military actions on the Eastern Front contributed to the fact that the forces of the Triple Alliance were forced to fight a war on 2 fronts, which quickly depleted the enemy’s forces. Also, successes during the fighting with the troops of the Ottoman Empire cooled the military fervor of Turkey, which entered the war on the side of the Triple Alliance.
5. What is government regulation of the military economy?
Answer: State regulation of the military economy is state regulation of the socio-economic sphere in order to ensure the front is supplied with weapons, food and other necessary items.
6. What were the results of the First World War?
Answer: The First World War, which lasted more than four years, became the greatest disaster in human history. It involved 38 states (including the British dominions) with a population of 1.5 billion people (60% of the world's inhabitants). Military operations took place over an area of over 4 million square kilometers. More than 70 million people were under arms, of whom 9.5 million were killed and more than 20 million were wounded and maimed.
The long stay of military personnel in the trenches and prisoner of war camps, the poverty and distress of the population in the rear, negatively affected the psyche of many people.
Months of hostilities caused colossal material damage: thousands of cities and villages were turned into ruins, factories, roads, bridges, and cultural monuments were destroyed.
As a result of the war, changes occurred on the political map of the world. The Russian, Austro-Hungarian, German and Ottoman empires collapsed. New states arose in Europe: Poland, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia. The peoples of colonial and dependent countries saw the prospects of liberation.
The First World War ushered in an era of unprecedented upheavals and revolutions. A new page in the history of the 20th century was beginning.
1. Could the war have been avoided if Archduke Franz Ferdinand had not been killed? (p. 29)
Answer: The assassination of the Archduke was only a pretext for war. Germany was ready for war, so another reason would have been found to start hostilities.
2. Which front was decisive at each stage of the First World War? Give reasons for your answer. (p. 29)
Both fronts were important because they destroyed Germany's plans for a blitzkrieg.
The Eastern Front, since during this period the German forces launched a war of maneuver here, pushing the front line further to the East, gradually inflicting crushing blows on the Russian army. However, successes were not long in coming - the Brusilovsky breakthrough, as a result of which the enemy was thrown back to the Carpathian Mountains.
Western Front, since the February Revolution had already occurred in Russia, after which demands were made for Russia’s withdrawal from the war. And on the Western Front at this time, Germany was making its last attempts to defeat the Entente.
Western Front - the offensive of the Entente troops and the surrender of Germany and its allies.
3. What is the role of propaganda in creating an atmosphere of patriotic uplift? (p. 29)
Answer: Propaganda unites the country's population against a common enemy. Helps strengthen a person’s patriotic feelings and desire to protect his family and loved ones.
4. What are the reasons for the Entente’s victory in the war? Could the Entente have won without the participation of the United States? (p. 29)
Answer: Depletion of German resources and US assistance. The Entente could have won without the help of the United States, since back in 1917 Germany offered the Entente peace negotiations.
Documents (p. 30)
What was the psychological effect of the gas attack of German troops near Ypres?
Answer: panic arose among the soldiers, as they had never encountered anything like this before.
How do you think the Russian retreat in the summer of 1915 affected the course of the First World War? (p. 30)
Answer: actions on the Eastern Front during this period helped the Entente countries rebuild their economies for the needs of the war. During the retreat, German troops suffered significant losses. However, the spirit of the Russian army was broken.
What measures were the priority for the Entente in the process of cessation of hostilities? How was it planned to limit Germany's military activity? (p. 31)
Answer: Evacuation of German troops from occupied countries. Transfer of some weapons to the Entente countries.
Limitation of Germany's military activity - the return of German troops within Germany, the reduction of the armament of German troops.