I spent every summer of my childhood at the dacha, in a fairly secluded place, and my mother or grandmother often told me what flowers grew in this area. They went to the forest to pick mushrooms, and to the swamps to pick calamus for the holiday, and planted flower beds with asters, dahlias and other flowers.
How is vegetation distributed in our latitudes?
Given the temperate continental climate, our flora is very diverse and numerous. The many rivers, lakes and swamps allow moisture-loving plants to grow along the coastline, and the southern regions provide sufficient temperature for xerophytes, i.e. plants that prefer arid and dry climates.
On the other hand, many plants introduced into our territory often do not take root due to large differences in soil quality. For example, even within one area, some food plants may either produce a large yield or not germinate at all.
Distribution of vegetation on planet Earth
All life on the planet is subject to several laws of nature that characterize its distribution. These laws are:
- The closer to the equator, the greater the species diversity.
- As you move away from the water source, the number of species, on the contrary, decreases.
- The number of species often follows an arithmetic progression. Thus, the presence of insects allows many insectivorous birds to live, which, in turn, provide food for predators.
- Human activities greatly influence species diversity. Uncontrolled hunting and deforestation have led to thousands and thousands of species facing the threat of extinction.
Vegetation today and tomorrow
Crossing of species and achievements of genetic engineering will sooner or later make it possible to identify new plant species, which may replace today's more familiar ones. Nowadays, special emphasis is placed on forage crops, as well as cereals, however, it is possible that we will soon get new trees, flowers and herbs.
On the other hand, if we continue our negative activities regarding nature, we may pass the point of no return, due to which we will no longer be able to preserve any memory for our descendants in the form of living organisms. We must take care of our Planet, because it is our Home.
There is a lot of vegetation on Earth, which is distributed unevenly and depends on certain environmental conditions.
What factors influence the placement of vegetation
- Climate;
- relief and soil type;
- humidity of the area;
- human activity.
Influence of factors on the placement of vegetation
Climate
Equatorial the belt contains the most favorable conditions for plants. There are evergreen forests, mangroves (located along the banks of rivers and seas), giant ficus and palm trees. There is a great variety of ferns and mosses.
IN tropical The belt is mainly inhabited by fruit trees, such as papaya, mango, banana, kiwi, guava, avocado, etc. The vegetation is widespread in continuous tropical impenetrable forests.
Moderate The climate has a large temperature difference between summer and winter. Broad-leaved and evergreen forests are widespread here; the plains are densely overgrown with herbs and shrubs. In winter, most plants slow down their growth and trees shed their leaves.
Polar The climate has rather harsh conditions for the existence of plants. In places where permafrost reigns, the vegetation is poor and grows in separate islands, not reaching large sizes.
Relief and soils
Plants exist on two types of terrain: flat and mountainous. On the plains the vegetation is always richer and denser than in the mountains. This is explained by the fact that on the plains there are more fertile soils containing humus, while in the mountains the soils are mostly rocky or sandy.
Humidity
Places with low moisture levels suffer from a lack of flora and fauna. Camel thorns and cacti grow in deserts, which survive in such conditions only thanks to their amazing adaptations. But in general, dry areas are bare, lifeless places.
Human activity
Man has made enormous changes in the distribution of vegetation on Earth. Deforestation and overgrazing impoverish the flora, but restoration measures are also carried out when people plant empty areas with trees and fertilize the soil.
Flora of Russia
Goals and objectives of the lesson:
Consider the types of vegetation and the relationship of the flora with climate, topography, soils, and waters. Identify the main reasons influencing the distribution of vegetation across the territory of our country, the main types of vegetation in Russia, and under what conditions they are formed.
Continue to develop the ability to tell stories and enter into dialogue on the problem of the unity of the relationship between man and nature. Develop memory, thinking, imagination.
Develop the ability to work in a team, developing such qualities as mutual assistance and a culture of learning.
Equipment:
wall maps; “Vegetation of Russia”, “Natural zones of Russia”,
herbarium,
slides “vegetation of Russia”,
paintings of natural areas,
instruction cards for each student.
During the classes
1. Organizational moment
II. Teacher's opening speech
Message of topic and goal: today we will get acquainted with the nature of vegetation on the territory of Russia, typical plants, and the conditions of their formation. We must trace the relationship “Vegetation - nature. Time. Human". Famous historian V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote: “The power that holds in its hands the cradle of every nation is the nature of its country.” Our task is to confirm the statement with facts.
Vegetation is one of the most important components of nature. By vegetation we recognize a natural area; vegetation determines the face of the landscape.
Plants are an important factor in soil formation.
Vegetation protects the soil from erosion, maintains the groundwater level, and, therefore, affects the full flow of rivers and lakes.
Plants provide food for animals and humans.
Earth's plants shape the composition of the atmosphere by supplying oxygen released during photosynthesis.
The planet's vegetation is also its beauty.
Plants do not exist in isolation, but in plant communities. The composition of plants in a community is determined by the ratio of heat and moisture throughout the year. Russia has a variety of plant communities.
Factors influencing vegetation. The natural vegetation cover of Russia is very diverse - from the tundra in the Far North to the desert at the southern borders of the country. The main reason for this diversity is
human activity
differences in the climate of individual areas.
Groundwater
In the cold, harsh, windy North we find a squat carpet of plants dominated by mosses and lichens; in the central zone of the country, where the climate is warmer and forests are widespread; even further south, where it is hot in summer and there is very little moisture, only steppe and desert communities can exist. plants.
If areas differ in climate type, then they necessarily have different natural vegetation cover. On the plains, vegetation changes over a large area, for example, when moving from north to south over several hundred or even thousands of kilometers.
As the story progresses, the teacher draws a diagram on the board:
In Russia, the zonation of vegetation is best expressed in the European part: tundra, forest, steppe, desert. To determine which zone we are in, we need to pay attention to the vegetation that predominates on loamy, flat areas located outside river valleys, i.e. zonal vegetation.
III. Group work
Teacher: What makes Russia memorable? The discreet beauty of nature, the blue of countless lakes. Time seemed to stand still in small villages lost among the forests. In the severity and grandeur of ancient cities. New buildings, lost among the swamps. “Wildlife” accompanies man. It is generally accepted that the main thing in “wild nature” is vegetation, flora. Even the names of natural zones speak about it - taiga, steppe, forest-steppe, etc. There are about 18 thousand higher plants in our country. It is interesting that among the representatives of the plant world, species of herbaceous plants predominate - there are many thousands of them, while there are slightly more than 500 trees. You cannot tell about them all. Therefore, we will hear the results of research from scientific expeditions.
Students become familiar with different types of plant communities by working in groups. The class is divided into groups of 4 people. Each group receives a herbarium of plants from one plant community on which it will work, and a sheet with an action program and questions.
10-15 minutes are allotted for work, then the groups report on the work completed. Everyone listens and fills out the summary table.
Types of plant communities
Plant community
Formation conditions
General form
Typical plants
Adaptation to environmental conditions
Sheet 1. Tundra.
Read the text of the textbook (B.: p. 102; R.: p. 149), Answer the questions
1. Where tundra vegetation predominates in Russia, show on the map the southern border of the tundra. (According to the map of the atlas “Vegetation”);
2. What are the conditions for the formation of the tundra plant community?
H. Look at the species of tundra plants in the herbarium, name them and show them to the class when reporting.
4. What adaptations do plants have (leaves, roots, annual perennials)?
5. Why do plants have small growth and pillow-shaped shapes? Why do they have small leaf blades?
6. Why do perennial plants predominate?
7. Why do plants have a branched root system?
Message:
Botanist. The summer tundra is full of colors. There are many types of lichens and herbs; cranberries, blueberries, cloudberries, and blueberries grow in abundance. Thickets of sedges and cotton grass during flowering create the impression of snow cover.
There are many useful plants in the tundra: berries, fodder, medicinal, which are well adapted to local climatic conditions. Huge areas are occupied by dwarf vegetation - birch, willow, juniper. The low growth of tundra plants allows them to benefit from freezing protection from snow cover, and in summer to receive heat from the soil, which heats up more than the surrounding air.
Most tundra plants are evergreen, their leaves do not die off in the fall, and awaken again in the spring, because the summer is short and the plant does not waste time on budding. In spring, the tundra is full of colors: gum, polar poppy, and saxifrage bloom. The pillow-shaped plants are pressed to the ground - this saves them from the burning cold and large evaporations. Significant areas of the tundra are occupied by lichens, of which moss is a valuable food for deer
Sheet 2. Forests
Message:
The forest, including coniferous ones, contains mushrooms, berries, wood, medicinal herbs, and game. Natural zones of coniferous forests occupy a large territory of Russia. Russia accounts for 22% of the world's forest resources - 60% of the country's entire territory. Wood reserves exceed those of the USA and Canada by 3.5 times and more than 80% are coniferous species. In the western zone of Russia, 26% of the area is covered with taiga. In the eastern zone (Northern Urals, Western and Eastern Siberia, Far East) - 65% of the territory is covered with coniferous forest - these are territories with the exception of tundra and forest-tundra. The forest itself influences the state of the lower layer of the atmosphere (decreasing wind speed, increasing evaporation, clearing the air of dust).
1. Read the text of the textbook (Pages 150-151)
2. What types of vegetation can be distinguished in forest communities? ( Dark coniferous taiga, pine forests, light coniferous larch taiga of Siberia, mixed and broad-leaved forest.)
3. What are the conditions for the formation of forest vegetation? ( Temperate climate, cold winters, warm summers, excess moisture)
4. Examine the herbarium and drawings, identify the plants of broad-leaved forests and taiga.
5. What adaptations do forest plants have? ( leaves turned into needles, larch sheds its needles) Why do spruce roots go deep, while larch roots spread in the surface layer? ( Larch grows on frozen soils)
6. How do the growing conditions of broad-leaved forests differ from the conditions of coniferous forests? ( Broadleaf forests grow to the south of coniferous forests where winters are milder.
7. Why is it that in the harshest continental climate of Eastern Siberia, only larch grows in the forests? ( It is more cold resistant)
9. What species are classified as light coniferous?
Physical education minute.
They raised their hands and shook them - these are trees in the forest.
Arms bent, hands shaken
The wind blows away the dew.
Let's wave our hands to the sides, smoothly -
These are the birds flying towards us.
Let us show you how they sit down quietly -
The wings were folded back.
What natural area is the poem talking about?
On all sides let:
No forest, no mountains!
The vast expanse!
Endless space!
Of course, these are poems about the steppe.
Leaf of the Z. Steppe
1. Study the text of the textbook (p. 152;). On the map (Fig. 70, p. 159) determine the distribution area of steppe vegetation. ( South of the Russian and West Siberian Plains.)
2. What are the conditions for the formation of steppe plants? ( k = 0.9-0.8, insufficient moisture, very warm summer.)
3. Examine herbarium specimens of steppe plants.
4. What adaptations do steppe plants have to environmental conditions? ( These are herbs with powerful roots, with bulbs and rhizomes, some have very thin leaves - feather grass.)
5. Why do the steppes turn green only in early spring? ( In the spring there is enough moisture in the soil; in the spring, plants with a short growing season bloom, usually having a reserve of nutrients in the bulbs and rhizomes - these are tulips, irises, peonies, etc. They are called ephemera.)
Message:
The southern steppe is the kingdom of feather grass. The appearance of the vegetation is peculiar, unique - a silvery, gray sea, agitated by the wind. Against this background, only bright spots of flowering herbs are scattered here and there. And in some places there is none at all.
Feather grass grows in a unique way - in the form of a large, very dense bush. Feather grass leaves are very narrow and almost always folded lengthwise. This shape of the leaf blade serves as a device to reduce evaporation from leaf tissues. Feather grasses are fairly drought-resistant plants that tolerate a lack of moisture in the soil.
The feather grass fruit is very narrow and sharp. Sticking into the ground and thanks to a special device, the grain is screwed into the soil. This ensures better seed germination (they immediately end up in the soil rather than remaining on its surface).
6. Why don’t trees grow in the steppes? ( They lack moisture.)
Sheet 4. Deserts
1. Read the text of the textbook (page 152;).
2. Find on the vegetation map the territory occupied by deserts and semi-deserts. ( Southeast of the Russian Plain, Caspian Lowland.)
3. Examine herbarium samples and determine plant adaptations to conditions of poor moisture. ( Long roots, small leaves pubescent or covered with a waxy coating, lack of leaves, lumps.)
4. Name the plants of the desert community. ( Camel thorn, solyanka, saxaul tree, juzgun, stag wood, wormwood.)
Azonal plant communities: meadows and swamps.
In addition to the zonal plant communities that we studied today, there are azonal plant communities that do not form a continuous strip. These are meadows and swamps. You can find them in several natural areas, among other plant communities.
Plant resources
The plant world provides humans with food products, feed, and raw materials.
Forest resources– these are various forest resources used in the national economy.
What does the plant world give to man? ( The forest provides wood for construction, for making paper, fabric (viscose), and is used as firewood. Tree resin is used in printing.)
And you also have resin in your pen paste. Otherwise, the letters will fall off the paper very quickly.
Students remember medicinal plants, edible ones - strawberries, raspberries, nuts, mushrooms. Plants are food for pets. Meadows are pastures and hayfields.
IU. Lesson summary
The result of the lesson is a completed table in a notebook - modeled on tundra vegetation.
Teacher: Listening to the reports of the expedition, we found out that the flora of Russia is amazing and diverse, but touching it must be gentle. The future prosperity of humanity is possible only with a reasonable combination of respect for nature.
The earth is our home, a person must be aware of his responsibility to his descendants. I return to the words of Klyuchevsky: “The power that holds in its hands the cradle of every nation is the nature of its country.”
Homework
Desert plant community.
Compose a crossword puzzle “Flora world of Russia” or 10 surveys about plants and their adaptation to environmental conditions.
Individual tasks. Prepare messages:
a) about a reindeer, b) about a camel.
Questions
Why are perennial plants predominant in the tundra?
Why is it that in the harshest continental climate of Eastern Siberia, only larch grows in the forests? ( It is more cold resistant)
What tree species are light coniferous?
Why don't trees grow in the steppes? ( They lack moisture.)
5. Why do several annual rings form on saxaul in one year? ( The formation of rings is related to the number of rainy days.)
Champions of the Forest
1. The most durable tree, living up to 900 years - larch.
2. Tallest tree – cedar.
3. The most common tree is pine.
4. The most beautiful New Year tree - Christmas tree
5. The most common deciduous “pioneer tree” is birch.
Distribution of vegetation on the territory of Russia. Vegetation is one of the most important components of nature. It determines the general appearance of the territory and plays a big role in the life of nature and humans. Vegetation protects the surface from destruction by external processes and affects surface and groundwater. Without plants, soil formation, animal life, and even human existence are impossible. Human food and the composition of the air that he breathes are, to a large extent, the result of the vital activity of plants. Plants do not exist on the surface in isolation, but in the form of regular combinations of many plants - plant communities, which together form the vegetation cover of the territory. The composition of plants and the appearance of the flora of any territory is determined by the ratio of heat and moisture at different periods of the year. Therefore, we see various combinations of plant communities on the territory of the country: tundra and forests, steppes and deserts, meadows and swamps.
The distribution of vegetation throughout the territory is influenced by the topography and composition of surface sediments, soil characteristics, the depth of groundwater, human activity and other factors. But climate has a decisive influence, therefore, zonation is clearly visible in the vegetation cover of the plains, and in the mountains - altitudinal zonation, associated with a change in climatic conditions with altitude. The dominant plant communities of the main natural zones are zonal vegetation types. An idea of the distribution of vegetation throughout our country can be obtained using a vegetation map.
Main types of vegetation.
Tundra vegetation forms when there is little heat. This determines its main features: treelessness, spotting (mosaic), predominance of mosses and lichens, shrubs and partly shrubs, short stature and dominance of perennials. Tundra plants have adapted to the short, cool growing season. Annuals are practically absent due to the fact that plants do not have enough time or sufficient heat to complete the full development cycle in one year. Typical representatives of the tundra are: moss lichen (“reindeer moss”), green mosses, lingonberry, crowberry, partridge grass, cassiopeia, dwarf birch, polar willows, polar poppy, arctic bluegrass, etc. Forests occupy more than 40% of the area of our country. They are common where average monthly temperatures in July exceed +10°C, and there is sufficient and excessive moisture. Forests evaporate (transform) a lot of moisture, so in areas with insufficient and poor moisture they can only exist with additional moisture from groundwater (floodplains) or permafrost thawing (Central Yakutia). Tree species are very different in their requirements for heat, light and moisture. Excessive moisture, harsh winters and cool summers are better tolerated by conifers. Leaves turned into needles (needles) evaporate less moisture, so coniferous trees can grow at lower temperatures. Coniferous forests occupy about 80% of the forest area in Russia. The most cold-resistant of the conifers is larch. It is the only one of all conifers that sheds its needles for the winter and thereby reduces evaporation, protecting itself from freezing. The distribution of larch is clearly related to the sharply continental climate. Broad-leaved forests grow in mild winters and humid and fairly long summers. Excessive moisture, as well as insufficient moisture, limits the spread of broad-leaved species. The increasing severity of winters prevents their penetration beyond the Urals. These are the richest in the number of species and complex in structure (multi-tiered) forests. Steppes are common in areas of insufficient and unstable moisture and are represented by communities of herbaceous plants that tolerate a lack of moisture in the soil. Typical steppe plants are turf grasses with narrow leaves: different types of feather grass, fescue, thin-legged grass. Along with them, forbs are always present in steppe communities.
Where the moisture coefficient is close to unity, colorful herbs predominate, and many brightly flowering meadow plants are found. The appearance of such steppes indicates relatively favorable moisture conditions. These are meadow, or mixed-grass, steppes. They are common in the forest-steppe zone. With increasing dryness, meadow forbs are replaced by species adapted to the lack of moisture - dry-loving forbs (thyme, romantic, some types of wormwood, etc.). Many of them are grayish, inconspicuous plants with finely dissected leaves, with drooping or waxy coating, and with inconspicuous, dim flowers. Species diversity is becoming less and less, and the vegetation cover is thinning out. Deserts occupy areas that are least favorable for the existence of plants, so the vegetation cover is extremely sparse. Due to poor moisture, desert plants are characterized by extreme drought resistance. They have a number of devices that allow them to extract moisture and use it economically. Among desert plants, various types of wormwood and solyanka predominate. Tundra, forest, steppe and desert communities are determined by the climatic conditions of the main natural zones of Russia. Along with them, meadows and swamps are also found in all zones. Their existence depends on the local characteristics of moisture in individual areas (close occurrence of groundwater, periodic flooding, etc.). Meadows are communities of herbaceous plants that develop under average moisture conditions. They do not tolerate either severe drying out of the soil or constant waterlogging. Meadows are found in all natural areas and in the mountains. Almost all meadow plants are perennials. In autumn, their above-ground parts die off, and in spring new shoots appear. Meadows are characterized by a large grass stand and dense turf formed by densely intertwined plant roots. Swamps are communities of moisture-loving vegetation located on excessively moist land areas. Typically, swamps are confined to relief depressions, but with large amounts of precipitation they can also occupy watersheds. Therefore, swamps are especially widespread in forest and tundra zones. To the south their areas are sharply reduced. The forest zone of Western Siberia is characterized by exceptional swampiness. The plant communities of bogs include mosses, shrubs, herbaceous plants and even trees (pine, birch).
Plant resources. The plant world provides humans with food products, feed, and raw materials.
Forest resources. - These are various forest resources used in the national economy. The main product of the forest is wood. But forests provide more than just timber. In the forests, medicinal raw materials, wild fruit and berry plants, and mushrooms are harvested. Pine nuts, lingonberries and blueberries, black and red currants, raspberries and strawberries are an incomplete list of the gifts of nature that the forest supplies humans with. But forest resources are far from being fully utilized. Feed resources are available in various natural areas. The most productive forage areas are meadows. Lush meadow grasses are the main feed for cattle. Meadows serve as hayfields and pastures. The highest yields of grass are produced by floodplain meadows. They are used as hayfields. In the arid regions of the country, feed resources are represented by roughage (dry, hard) feed. In semi-deserts and deserts
There are pastures for sheep and camels. With sparse vegetation cover, animals have to constantly move in search of food. Sheep and camels eat young shoots of bushes, wormwood and solyanka, and herbaceous plants. There are extensive reindeer pastures in the tundra and forest-tundra. One of the most important forage plants here is reindeer moss.
To create a special microclimate, it is effective to use climbing species, ground cover crops and shrubs.
Climbing species and trellises*
In windy places, plants suffer most from lack of shelter. To correct the situation, it is best to install trellises at right angles to the walls of the house. Trellis serve many purposes. They separate living space and places intended for relaxation and work; prevent the movement of cold air along the walls (and act as sun catchers), and also serve as a base for placing climbing plants on them. These trellises can extend from the corners of the house or simply divide the facade into several parts, providing additional space for benches, lawns and vegetable gardens.
Very often, the spaces between large buildings and roads turn into tunnels through which the wind moves at high speed. Boulders, trees, bushes or trellis systems can effectively eliminate this deficiency by blocking dust, noise, and cold air currents that are a consequence of ill-conceived organization. A similar approach can be applied to all types of roads.
In addition to the fact that climbing plants can be used for windbreaks, one must also take into account their potential as fast-growing species (4.5 - 6 meters per year, in warm and humid conditions). This advantage can be used to ensure that climbing plants create the necessary shade at first, until larger trees have grown. It must be borne in mind that climbing species grow very quickly, which subsequently makes it difficult to control their spread. Therefore, such plants need to be pruned periodically. Some types of climbing plants grow into mortar, window frames, roofing, and drain pipes and destroy them. Therefore, before planning to place such plants in any specific place, it is necessary to study all the features inherent in a particular species.
Climbing plants have good heat-insulating properties if they are placed on the roof and walls of buildings. This thick coating can reduce heat absorption by 70% and heat loss by 30%. In temperate regions, ivy has been used for this purpose for centuries. In hot and dry climates, climbing plants with leaves that fall in winter, such as grapes, wisteria, etc., can be placed on the sunny side of the house or garden to create shade.
Ground cover and mulch
Bare soil warms or cools (depending on the season) much more than protected soil. It is best to keep the soil open in the spring, when the sprouts are still underground and the soil needs to warm up. The rest of the time, it is better to have some kind of organic cover on the ground in the form of low-growing species or mulch. Natural coverings (grass, creeping plants) and mulch have the following properties:
♦ reduce soil heating by evaporating moisture and creating shade;
♦ do not emit heat subsequently (the way plastic or stone does);
♦ protect the soil from erosion;
♦ do not reflect light;
♦ keep the soil warm or cool, depending on the weather;
♦ act as a barrier against weeds (although sometimes weeding is still necessary).
Vegetation cover is planted under the trees (not cereals, since in this case young fruit trees do not develop well). Depending on the climate, Dolichos, dichondra, lupine, or dense plantings of marigolds can act as such a covering. If such a covering is made of climbing species, then it needs to be trimmed from time to time. Local legumes are best in this case, as they increase the nitrogen content of the soil.
Shrubs
Shrubs provide moisture concentration around the tree and also protect against cold in places with an unfavorable microclimate. Mariam and Jim Tyler in New Zealand plant coppice broom at a distance of 0.6 - 0.9 meters from avocado trees in order to protect young trees from frost. The broom is pruned 2 to 3 times during the summer, which produces some fuel and mulch, and is eventually cut back completely.
Shrubs can be used to separate garden plots and also provide windbreaks, especially in coastal regions. It is always necessary to select a type suitable for given conditions in order to avoid additional work in the future.
Shrubs or even already growing “noxious” weeds can be used as nurse plants, providing mulch, shade, protection from wind, frost and animals. At the same time, such plants can have a positive effect on the nitrogen content in the soil. On the north coast of New Zealand, Ian Robertson plants tamarillos in places where shrubs have been previously cut and scattered on the ground. Dick Nichols uses the mechanisms of natural species change to revive native forest in areas where the entire space is occupied by prickly gorse. In both cases, the positive qualities of an already present plant are used (mulch, protection from wind and cold). The bush is cut and pressed around a tree, which will eventually provide too much shade for the bush to develop. This method can be used in areas where, for example, a large number of blackberries grow.
In the permaculture scoring system, soil is not a major limiting factor. Its quality can be improved over time and with appropriate effort. The location of the house and Zone 1 (intensively used site) is not necessarily selected based on soil conditions, although the latter is also an important factor, and if in any particular location the soil is of good quality, with most other factors also being favorable, then It’s better to place the house here, which will subsequently save one to two years of labor.
Very few soil types are completely unsuitable for cultivation; There are always corresponding species that can grow in seemingly hopeless conditions. Almonds and olives do well on rocky soil; black currants and gray walnuts grow where there is poor soil drainage; blueberries can grow where the soil is too acidic; Sweet honey locust grows in the most alkaline soils.
On any site, the first thing to do is to establish the acidity of the soil (for the garden), drainage characteristics, and also make observations regarding what types of vegetation are already growing in a given place. Based on this, we will decide which species need to be planted and in what way we will improve the quality of the soil, depending on the scale of land use. Obviously, the greatest effort will need to be spent on the vegetable garden and garden adjacent to the house, while processing the distant parts can be done secondarily.
Bare soil is damaged soil and occurs only when the natural balance of a given location has been disrupted by humans or animals. If the soil is bare, it is easily damaged by sun, wind and water. Therefore, intensive cultivation can not only disrupt the vital processes in the soil, but also lead to more serious damage.
In a permaculture system, there are three main methods for reducing soil loss, each of which aims to saturate the soil with air and nutrients:
♦ Cultivation of forests and shrubs to protect the soil.
♦ Application of non-moldboard plowing methods.
♦ Creating conditions for the emergence of more soil organisms, especially worms, which saturate dense soil with air (mulching and composting).
The first two methods are used on large areas of cultivated land, while the third method is mainly used on small areas. Forestry and cover crop cultivation produces large quantities of mulch, which can then be successfully applied to small vegetable gardens.
Very often, those weeds that we complain about (blackberries, mullein, thistles) turn out to be themselves indicators that the soil is in an abnormal condition. Some of these plants are pioneer plants*, and they will eventually change the soil for the better so that other species can then grow there.
A sign of good soil is adequate levels of moisture, oxygen, nutrients and organic matter. Soils are formed and enriched as a result of cyclical processes. First of all, this concerns the process of drawing moisture and nutrients from the soil, carried out by the root systems of plants, and the subsequent process of dumping foliage and fruits to the surface.
The following steps can be taken to restore the soil:
♦ Prevent erosion by covering exposed soil and afforesting areas that are prone to erosion (steep slopes, ravines, river banks, road embankments). This also includes control over the movement of water masses within a specific territory (installation of water storage facilities, drainage channels, as well as the use of non-moldboard plowing methods). For plant cover, it is preferable to use local fast-growing species. Large logs can be placed on slopes to retain water and plant debris, and then the plants themselves can be planted behind the logs.
♦ Adding organic material to the soil. On a large scale: planting specialty crops that are then cut and plowed under. On a small scale: fertilization with organic waste as well as plant residues.
♦ Loosening compacted soil and providing it with air. On a large scale: the use of non-moldboard plowing (knife*) and special methods of mechanized tillage. Small scale: loosening the soil with a pitchfork.
♦ Changing the acidity of the soil or planting plants for which the level of soil acidity would be quite acceptable (the latter is more preferable than the former). In order to increase the alkali content in acidic soils, materials such as chalk, limestone, gypsum, magnesite and dolomite can be successfully used. To obtain the opposite effect, phosphates are used, as well as pet feces. Blood, bones, manure and compost can be used on all types of soil if there is a need to bring the pH level to neutral.
♦ Compensation for the lack of nutrients in the soil through mineral supplements (manganese, phosphorus, potassium), as well as by introducing manure and plant residues into the soil. Effective methods in this case are placing the seeds, before sowing, in special shells containing nutrients, as well as irrigating the foliage of plants with nutrient solutions.
♦ Activation of various life forms, such as, for example, worms, which are indicators of normal soil.
In general, methods for restoring and creating soils can be summarized as follows:
♦ Correct organization of plants and animals in a specific area.
♦ Mechanical processing methods (on a large scale).
♦ Consistent soil building (on a small scale).