Literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century played an important role in the social life of the country. Most modern critics and readers are sure of this. At that time, reading was not entertainment, but a way of understanding the surrounding reality. For the writer, creativity itself became an important act of civil service to society, since he had a sincere belief in the power of the creative word, in the likelihood that a book could influence the mind and soul of a person so that he would change for the better.
Confrontation in literature
As modern researchers note, it was precisely because of this belief that in the literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century a civic pathos was born in the struggle for some idea that could play an important role in transforming the country, sending the entire country along one path or another. The 19th century was a century maximum development national critical thought. Therefore, the speeches in the press of critics of that time were included in the annals of Russian culture.
A well-known confrontation that emerged in the history of literature in the half of the 19th century emerged between Westerners and Slavophiles. These social movements arose in Russia back in the 40s of the 19th century. Westerners advocated that the true development of Russia began with the reforms of Peter I, and in the future it is necessary to follow this historical path. At the same time, they treated all of pre-Petrine Rus' with disdain, noting the lack of culture and history worthy of respect. Slavophiles advocated the independent development of Russia independent of the West.
Just at that time, a very radical movement became popular among Westerners, which was based on the teachings of utopians with a socialist bent, in particular, Fourier and Saint-Simon. The most radical wing of this movement saw revolution as the only way to change something in the state.
Slavophiles, in turn, insisted that Russian history is no less rich than Western history. In their opinion, Western civilization suffered from individualism and lack of faith, having become disillusioned with spiritual values.
The confrontation between Westerners and Slavophiles was also observed in Russian literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century, and especially in criticism of Gogol. Westerners considered this writer the founder of the social-critical trend in Russian literature, and Slavophiles insisted on the epic completeness of the poem “Dead Souls” and its prophetic pathos. Remember that critical articles played a big role in Russian literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century.
"Naturalists"
In the 1840s, a whole galaxy of writers appeared who rallied around literary critic Belinsky. This group of writers came to be called representatives of the “natural school.”
They were very popular in the literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century. Their main character- a representative of the unprivileged class. These are artisans, janitors, beggars, peasants. Writers sought to give them the opportunity to speak out, to show their morals and way of life, reflecting through them the whole of Russia from a special angle.
The genre is gaining great popularity among them. It describes different layers of society with scientific rigor. Prominent representatives of the “natural school” are Nekrasov, Grigorovich, Turgenev, Reshetnikov, Uspensky.
Democratic revolutionaries
By 1860, the confrontation between Westerners and Slavophiles was fading away. But disputes between representatives of the intelligentsia continue. Cities and industry are rapidly developing around us, and history is changing. At this moment, people from a variety of social strata came to the literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century. If earlier writing was the domain of the nobility, now merchants, priests, townspeople, officials and even peasants take up the pen.
In literature and criticism, ideas laid down by Belinsky are developed; authors pose pressing social questions to readers.
Chernyshevsky lays the philosophical foundations in his master's thesis.
"Aesthetic Criticism"
In the 2nd half of the 19th century, the direction of “aesthetic criticism” received special development in literature. Botkin, Druzhinin, Annenkov do not accept didacticism, proclaiming the intrinsic value of creativity, as well as its detachment from social problems.
“Pure art” should solve exclusively aesthetic problems, representatives of “organic criticism” came to such conclusions. In its principles, developed by Strakhov and Grigoriev, true art became the fruit of not only the mind, but also the soul of the artist.
Soilmen
Soil scientists gained great popularity during this period. Dostoevsky, Grigoriev, Danilevsky, and Strakhov considered themselves to be among them. They developed Slavophile ideas, while warning against getting too carried away with social ideas and breaking away from tradition, reality, history and the people.
They tried to penetrate the lives of ordinary people by bringing out general principles for maximum organic development of the state. In the magazines "Epoch" and "Time" they criticized the rationalism of their opponents, who, in their opinion, were too revolutionary.
Nihilism
One of the features of literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century was nihilism. The soil scientists saw it as one of the main threats to present reality. Nihilism was very popular among different strata of Russian society. It was expressed in the denial of accepted norms of behavior, cultural values and recognized leaders. Moral principles were replaced by the concepts of one’s own pleasure and benefit.
The most striking work of this direction is Turgenev’s novel “Fathers and Sons,” written in 1861. Its main character, Bazarov, denies love, art and compassion. Pisarev, who was one of the main ideologists of nihilism, admired him.
Novel genre
Important role The novel occupies the Russian literature of this period. It was in the second half of the 19th century that Leo Tolstoy’s epic “War and Peace”, Chernyshevsky’s political novel “What is to be done?”, Dostoevsky’s psychological novel “Crime and Punishment”, and Saltykov-Shchedrin’s social novel “The Golovlevs” were published.
The most significant was the work of Dostoevsky, which reflected the era.
Poetry
In the 1850s, poetry experienced a period of prosperity after a short period of oblivion that followed the golden age of Pushkin and Lermontov. Polonsky, Fet, Maikov come to the fore.
In their poems, poets pay increased attention to folk art, history, and everyday life. It becomes important to comprehend Russian history in the works of Alexei Konstantinovich Tolstoy, Maykov, Mey. It is epics, folk legends and ancient songs that determine the style of the authors.
In the 50-60s, the work of civilian poets became popular. Poems by Minaev, Mikhailov, and Kurochkin are associated with revolutionary democratic ideas. The main authority for poets of this movement is Nikolai Nekrasov.
By the end of the 19th century, peasant poets became popular. Among them we can highlight Trefolev, Surikov, Drozhzhin. In her work she continues the traditions of Nekrasov and Koltsov.
Dramaturgy
The second half of the 19th century was the time of development of national and original drama. The authors of the plays actively use folklore, pay attention to peasant and merchant life, national history, the language spoken by the people. You can often find works devoted to social and moral issues; they combine romanticism with realism. Such playwrights include Alexey Nikolaevich Tolstoy, Ostrovsky, Sukhovo-Kobylin.
The variety of styles and artistic forms in drama led to the emergence at the very end of the century of vivid dramatic works by Chekhov and Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy.
Influence of foreign literature
Foreign literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century has a significant influence on domestic writers and poets.
At this time, realistic novels reigned in foreign literature. First of all, these are the works of Balzac ("Shagreen Skin", "The Abode of Parma", "Eugenia Grande"), Charlotte Brontë ("Jane Eyre"), Thackeray ("The Newcombs", "Vanity Fair", "The Story of Henry Esmond"), Flaubert ("Madame Bovary", "Education of the Senses", "Salammbô", "A Simple Soul").
In England at that time, Charles Dickens was considered the main writer; his works “Oliver Twist”, “The Pickwick Papers”, The Life and Adventures of Nicklas Nickleby”, “A Christmas Carol”, “Dombey and Son” were also read in Russia.
In European poetry, the collection of poems by Charles Baudelaire “Flowers of Evil” becomes a real revelation. These are the works of the famous European symbolist, which caused a storm of discontent and indignation in Europe due to the large number of obscene lines; the poet was even fined for violating moral standards, making the collection of poems one of the most popular in the decade.
The Pushkin era became a high century in Russian poetry. After the life of Lermontov and Pushkin suddenly died out in the first half of the 19th century, poetry, as part of the literary process, experienced a peculiar period of stagnation.
Development of poetry in the second half of the 19th century
The poems that were created by Russian authors in the 50s were subject to sharp criticism - they were all compared with the legacy of Alexander Sergeevich, and, according to many critics, they were much “weaker” than them. During this period, poetry began to gradually supplant prose. Such talented prose writers as Tolstoy, Turgenev and Dostoevsky appeared in the literary field. It should be noted that it was Tolstoy who was one of the most categorical critics of the new Russian poets: he ignored the work of Tyutchev, and openly called Polonsky, Maykov and Fet “mediocrities.”
Maybe Lev Nikolaevich really was right, and we shouldn’t perceive the poetry of the post-Pushkin era as a literary heritage? Then why do many of us associate the 19th century not only with the works of Lermontov and Pushkin, but also with the brilliant poems of Fet, Nekrasov, Pleshcheev, Koltsov, Polonsky, A. Tolstoy?
Moreover, if we consider Russian poetry from such a radical position, then the silversmith poets - Akhmatova, Blok, Bely, Mayakovsky, Tsvetaeva - automatically fall into the category of “mediocrities” who have not reached the level of Pushkin. Therefore, we see that such an opinion is devoid of all logical foundations, and it is categorically impossible to be guided by it.
Nekrasov's creativity
In the second half of the 19th century, Russian poetry began to actively recover, despite active opposition. The work of N. A. Nekrasov became the pinnacle of Russian poetry of the second half of the 19th century. In his poems and poems, he raised sensitive topics at that time concerning the painful life of the ordinary Russian people. Through literary techniques actively involved in his works, Nekrasov tried to convey to the upper strata the concept of the greatness of a simple peasant, deprived of material wealth, but who managed to preserve true human values.
The poet perceived his literary activity primarily as his civic duty, which consisted of serving his people and his homeland. Nekrasov, known for his publishing activities, became a father-mentor to aspiring poets of that time and gave them an impetus for further realization.
Creativity of Fet, Tyutchev, Pleshcheev, Polonsky
Poetic lyrics occupied a special place in the literature of that time. The poems of Fet, Tyutchev, Maikov, Pleshcheev, Polonsky, Koltsov, Nikitin were filled with admiration for the greatness of nature, its power and at the same time vulnerability. A striking example is Tyutchev’s poem “I Love a Thunderstorm in Early May,” which the reader will always associate with the magic and enchantment of ordinary people. natural phenomena, captivating a person's spirit.
The works of these poets, despite their lyrical content, were not devoid of a civic position. This was especially clearly observed in the work of A.K. Tolstoy, the author of many historical ballads and satirical poems, which ridiculed the monarchical regime and the very concept of royal power in Rus'.
Introduction…………………………………………………….……….......…....3
1. The development of poetry in the second half of the 19th century…………...…………….….5
2. The main motives of the lyrics in the works of A. A. Fet.................................................... 6
2.1 Fet’s poetry is nature itself, looking mirror-like through the human soul.................................................... ............................................8
2.2 Fet’s aesthetic views............................................................ .............10
3.Creativity of F.I. Tyutchev.................................................... ...................................12
Introduction
“Poetry is dark, inexpressible in verse,” wrote I.A. Bunin, a great representative of Russian literature of the 20th century. Indeed, poetry calls “a higher truth” - it tells about the events of spiritual life. “Can you tell your soul?” So, poetry in literature is a special kind, the art of words, where the poet expresses thoughts, feelings, and moods. The second half of the 19th century in Russia was the heyday of lyric poetry, although not for long: already in the 60-70s, interest in lyric poetry was declining (until almost the end of the century). But this short heyday was very fruitful.
Numerous collections of poetry are published; Critical attention was focused on new poetic works. It was also interesting that poetry for the first time split into two movements: democratic and lyrical. The source of this split is in disputes about Pushkin’s legacy. Fet and other supporters of “pure art” referred to Pushkin’s lines: “not for everyday excitement... we were born...”. Topicality and journalisticism were not accepted by poets, representatives of the second movement. The very term “poetry of pure art” is quite conventional. Thus, the person of the lyric poets is immersed in nature, and not in history, but the subject of their poetry has always been the real reality itself in the utmost completeness and richness of every moment. The man in their lyrics is open to every manifestation of “omnipotent nature”; every moment of his existence, in the words of I.A. Bunin, “partakes of the earth itself, of everything sensual, material from which the world is created.”
In their poems one cannot find pictures of social reality, just as there is no direct reflection of contemporary ideological problems. Fet, Tyutchev, A.K. Tolstoy do not strive to depict life with its everyday worries, troubles and losses. Their poetic task is to give life from a special angle, where it was beauty, the direct realization of the ideal.
Life in the 21st century is viewed from a different angle. What goals should modern readers have for 19th-century poetry?
Let's formulate the main ones:
Get acquainted with the life and work of poets
Show the features of poetry as a type of literature
Reveal the originality of the lyrics of the presented poets
Development of poetry in the second half of the 19th century
The poems that were created by Russian authors in the 50s were subject to sharp criticism - they were all compared with the legacy of Alexander Sergeevich, and, according to many critics, they were much “weaker” than them. During this period, poetry began to gradually supplant prose. Such talented prose writers as Tolstoy, Turgenev and Dostoevsky appeared in the literary field. It should be noted that it was Tolstoy who was one of the most categorical critics of the new Russian poets: he ignored the work of Tyutchev, and openly called Polonsky, Maykov and Fet “mediocrities.”
Maybe Lev Nikolaevich really was right, and we shouldn’t perceive the poetry of the post-Pushkin era as a literary heritage? Then why do many of us associate the 19th century not only with the works of Lermontov and Pushkin, but also with the brilliant poems of Fet, Nekrasov, Pleshcheev, Koltsov, Polonsky, A. Tolstoy?
Russian poetry of the 19th century experienced at least three genuine upsurges in its development. The first, relatively speaking, dates back to the beginning of the century and is marked by the name of Pushkin. Another long-recognized poetic rise occurs at the turn of two centuries - the nineteenth and twentieth - and is associated primarily with the work of Alexander Blok. Finally, the third, in the words of a modern researcher, “poetic era” is the middle of the past so far, the 60s, although it is in poetry that the so-called “sixties” chronologically shift more noticeably to the early 50s.
In the 40s, significant and fundamentally important phenomena took place in Russian poetry. Thus, in the mid-40s, Nekrasov’s original creativity took shape, and in the 40s, Fet began to create. And yet, in this decade, in general, poetry fades into the background, which is confirmed by the external picture of literary life: a limited number of published poetry collections, the modest place occupied by poetry in magazines. And the reasons must be sought not only in the arbitrariness of publishers or the lack of aesthetic sense among critics - one CAN point out, for example, a very restrained attitude towards poetry in the second half of the 40s, even among Belinsky. In the literature, analytical tendencies characteristic primarily of prose prevailed. Meanwhile, the attempt made at the very end of the 40s by such a sensitive editor and publisher as Nekrasov to revive interest in poetry seems symptomatic. A whole series of articles devoted to the poetic phenomena of the era is being planned in Sovremennik. Nekrasov’s famous article “Russian minor poets” was written within this framework.
All this was a foretaste of a new rise in poetry, signs of which were already visible from the beginning of the 50s and which by the mid-50s acquired unusual swiftness. Poetry again receives its citizenship on the pages of magazines, becomes a full-blooded and independent participant in the literary process, the subject of critical analysis and theoretical debate. The best critics again write a lot and with interest about it: Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov, Druzhinin and Botkin. Poetry collections come out and often become truly outstanding events in literary and social life. First of all, this applies to Nekrasov’s collection of 1856. Books by Fet, Nikitin, Ogarev, Polonsky, Ap. Maykova and others. The era called specifically to poetry, and not to poetry, of which there was never a shortage. The very character of poetry also changes qualitatively. Quite a few new poets are appearing: Sluchevskin, for example, or Nikitin. What is happening, however, is not just an ordinary generational change. The process of becoming poetry looks much more complicated. Characteristic is the revival to a new life of poets who had long been established, but were almost silent in the “non-poetic” 40s. Perhaps the most characteristic in this sense is the fate of a poet like Tyutchev, his kind of double revival: firstly, attention to his very work, which already existed, its revival in the reader’s perception and, secondly, his very extraordinary creative activity . We can talk about a kind of revival even of Nekrasov, who in the 1940s was experiencing a clear creative crisis, wrote little or no poetry (throughout 1849) and directly stated that he was no longer writing poetry. On the other hand, a writer like Turgenev, who created many poetic works in the “prosaic” 40s, completely parted with poetry in the “poetic” 50s.
Russian poetry after Pushkin, it carried opposing principles, expressed the increased complexity and inconsistency of life. Clearly defined and polarized, two directions are developing: democratic and “pure art.” When we talk about two poetic camps, we need to keep in mind the great diversity and complexity of relations both within each of the camps and in the relations between them, especially if we take into account the evolution of social and literary life, “Pure” poets wrote civil poetry: from liberal- accusatory (Ya. Polonsky) to protective (Ap. Maikov). Democratic poets experienced a certain (and also positive) influence from the poets of “pure art”: Nikitin, for example, in his poetry of nature. The flourishing of Khatir poetry is mainly associated with the democratic movement. Nevertheless, “pure art” put forward a number of major satirical talents: N. Shcherbina and especially A.K. Tolstoy, who wrote many satirical works - both independent and within the framework of collective authorship, creating the famous Kozma Prutkov. And yet, in general, there is a fairly clear divide between poetic movements. In the confrontation and confrontation of these two trends, intensified social struggle often manifested itself. The poles could perhaps be designated by two names: Nekrasov and Fet. “Both poets began to write almost simultaneously,” the critics stated, “both experienced the same phases of social life, both made a name for themselves in Russian literature... both, finally, are distinguished by far from ordinary talent, and for all that in poetic there is almost not a single common point in the activities of each of them.”
More often, the Nekrasov school - and here we are talking about just such a school - means poets of the 50s - 70s, ideologically and artistically closest to him, who experienced the direct influence of the great poet, even organizationally united in essence due to that circumstance that most of them were grouped around a few democratic publications: Nekrasov’s Sovremennik, Russian Word, Iskra.
Literature in the 19th century was, perhaps, the only form of expression of the opinions and aspirations of the common people. That is why it has incorporated politics, philosophy, ethics and aesthetics. Writers and poets became spiritual mentors, leaders, and protectors of ordinary people. It is no coincidence that E. Yevtushenko asserted that “a poet in Russia is more than a poet.”
The golden age of poetry began its countdown with the poems of V. Zhukovsky and K. Batyushkov, uniting the names of E. Baratynsky and N. Nekrasov. It is traditionally believed that this century ended with the work of F. Tyutchev. But the central figure always remains A.S. Pushkin.
For the first time, the lyrical hero was subjected to deep psychological analysis; poets sought not just to describe the feelings of their hero, but literally to bare their soul.
On the other hand, poetry, even more than prose, becomes a conductor of socio-political ideas. Already in the 40s of the century, critical realism was acquiring more and more distinct forms. Populist poets appear, expressing the protest of the humiliated and insulted, advocating radical changes in society.
Poets of the "Golden Age" of Russian literature
E. A. Baratynsky, V. A. Zhukovsky
ABOUT founders of the romantic movement in Russian poetry, who made a huge contribution to the development of such poetic genres as ballads, elegies, and epistles. Their work served as a good school for educating a whole galaxy of Russian poets, including such geniuses as Pushkin, Lermontov and Nekrasov.
E. A. Baratynsky
Selected Poem:
V. Zhukovsky
Selected Poem:
A.S. Pushkin- an incredible value, rightfully occupying a leading place among the galaxy of brilliant poets. It is Pushkin who is considered the founder of the Russian literary language; it was his bold experiments with words and forms of lyrical work that gave real masterpieces to world culture. Mixing language styles and masterfully combining different genres, Pushkin became the forerunner of the development of realistic art.
They say that Pushkin opened a window to the world for poetry. No, it was discovered before him. But it was Pushkin who erased all the barriers that separated poetry from ordinary life. From now on, everything that surrounds an ordinary person becomes a theme for poems: desires and love, nature and seasons, fairy tales and proverbs, historical events and, most importantly, the man himself, with his understanding of beauty, boundless love for his native land and deepest patriotism.
Selected poems:
M. Yu. Lermontov...Perhaps one of the most mysterious and mystical personalities in the history of Russian literature. In Lermontov's lyrics, the features of romanticism are clearly visible; his lyrical hero is full of experiences, thoughts and aspirations, is always in a spiritual search, full of despair and suffers from loneliness. It can be said that Lermontov’s work prepared a smooth transition from the traditions of romanticism to a realistic depiction of the lyrical hero. At the same time, Lermontov’s poetry is permeated through and through with symbols, half-hints, and prophecies. It is no coincidence that it was Lermontov’s work that served as the starting point for such literary direction as symbolism.
Selected poems:
A. N. Pleshcheev- Russian poet, whose work occurred in the 40s of the 19th century. He is considered one of the founders of revolutionary poetry, since his poems were literally permeated with revolutionary democratic ideas. On the other hand, A. Pleshcheev’s contribution to the development of Russian poetry as a translator is invaluable. Thanks to his translations, the Russian public became acquainted with Stendhal and Zola, Heine and Beranger. Together with Pushkin and Nekrasov, A. Pleshcheev is also considered the founder of literature for children.
Selected poems:
I. Z. Surikov- the brightest representative of the so-called “peasant” literature. One of the first people from the people who managed to publish his poetry collection during his lifetime. He helped other poets and writers a lot.
Selected poems:
I.S. Nikitin- Russian poet, in whose work social themes and lyrical themes were harmoniously intertwined. He wrote about everything: about the difficult existence of peasants, about the beauty of Russian nature, about love. Many of his poems are set to music.
Selected poems:
A.A. Fet- one of the founders of the direction of “pure art” in Russian literature. A. Fet's lyrics are far from social ideas and reality. The poet knew how to completely immerse himself in the world of emotions and experiences, and brilliantly described Russian nature. In the poet's later work, an important place in his lyrics was given to philosophical issues.
Selected poems:
A.N. Maikov and A.K. Tolstoy
Poets who worked at approximately the same time as I. Nikitin and A. Fet. The work of both clearly depicts historical themes. Only A. Maikov was more drawn to the history of Byzantium and Greece, and A. K. Tolstoy was in love with Russian history. By the way, it was A.K. Tolstoy who was one of the creators of the satirical image of Kozma Prutkov.
Selected poems:
ON THE. Nekrasov- a great Russian poet who was the first to completely devote all his work to the people - “I dedicated the lyre to my people.” It was in his poems that for the first time the voice of the people sounded so loudly; in his lyrics, the entire horror of the existence of the “little man” was shown mercilessly and without embellishment.
Nekrasov’s work marked the beginning of a new stage in Russian literature - folk, about the people and for the people.
Selected poems:
F.I. Tyutchev- Russian poet, whose work is often contrasted with the work of A. Pushkin. Tyutchev's poems are the same odes and poems of Pushkin, but in an incredibly compressed version, which is why they seem so dynamic and rich to us. The nature of the image of the lyrical hero has also changed. If Pushkin's hero is hot, fiery and ebullient, then Tyutchev's hero is, on the contrary, outside of reality and above the ordinary. Tyutchev's work marked the transition from the traditions of realistic art to new, decadent moods and the emergence of the Silver Age of Russian poetry.
Selected poems:
Thus, in Russian poetry of the 19th century, two main directions coexisted: realistic - with a strong civic position and a clear attachment to the realities of the day. The main representatives of this direction were N. Nekrasov, I. Nikitin, A. Pleshcheev. The second direction adhered to the concept of “pure art” - this is the work of poets immersed in philosophy and psychology: A. Fet, A. Maykov, A. Tolstoy and F. Tyutchev.
Both directions continued to develop in the 20th century, giving rise to many literary movements and forming the basis for the emergence of the “Silver Age” of Russian poetry.