35. Formation of Russian multi-party system at the beginning of the 20th century: political spectrum, main parties, their leaders and programs.
On February 23-March 3, the February Revolution took place in Russia. Events began to develop spontaneously.
Reasons for the revolution: If we talk about the influence of the First World War on the internal political life of Russia, then it was a kind of catalyst for radical revolutionary processes in society, and, one might say, was one of the main reasons for the February Revolution of 1917. The extreme aggravation of all the contradictions of Russian society, aggravated by the war, economic devastation and food crisis.
Driving force: working class, peasantry, liberal bourgeoisie, democratic strata of the population, intelligentsia, students, employees, representatives of oppressed peoples, army.
On February 27, the Provisional Committee of the State Duma was created (leaders: M. Rodzianko, P. Milyukov, G. Lvov, etc.) and the Petrograd Council (chairman - N. Chkheidze, deputies - A. Kerensky and M. Skobelev, G. Khrustalev-Nosar .
The Petrograd Soviet and the Provisional Committee of the State Duma are equally popular among the people and proclaim themselves the highest authority in the country, which laid the foundation for dual power.
On March 2, Nicholas II signs the abdication of the throne for himself and for his son Alexei in favor of his brother, Mikhail Romanov.
On March 2, a Provisional Government is formed (before the elections to the Constituent Assembly). Dual power begins in Russia - the Provisional Government on the one hand, and the Soviets of Workers', Peasants' and Soldiers' Deputies, which are spontaneously created throughout the country, on the other;
Results of the revolution:
1. the monarchy was overthrown;
2. fundamental human rights and freedoms were proclaimed;
3. dual power began.
The first Provisional Government was headed by State Duma deputy, Octobrist G. Lvov. The first government consisted mainly of representatives of bourgeois parties. Cadet P. Milyukov, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, had particular influence in the government.
In mid-April 1917, the first government crisis arose, caused by the “Milyukov note.” The provisional government took upon itself the obligation to “bring the war to a victorious end.” This caused numerous anti-war protests throughout the country. As a result, the Second Provisional Government was formed, which was again headed by G. Lvov. It was coalition - bourgeois-socialist.
In June, the crisis of the second Provisional Government broke out, because ministers - representatives of the right-wing party in every possible way prevented the radicalism of socialist ministers seeking to “push through” laws on an 8-hour working day and the urgent convening of a Constituent Assembly
37. October Revolution of 1917: causes, course of events, results. Main decisions of the Second Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies.
On the night of October 25, the Bolsheviks carried out an armed seizure of power. On the evening of October 25, the Second Congress of Soviets began its work. IN AND. Lenin announced the overthrow of the Provisional Government and the transfer of power to the Bolsheviks. The II Congress formed a new Provisional Government headed by V.I. Lenin (Council of People's Commissars).
Reasons for the October Revolution of 1917:
1) fatigue from war;
2) industry and Agriculture countries were on the verge of complete collapse;
3) catastrophic financial crisis;
4) the unresolved agrarian question and the impoverishment of peasants;
5) delaying socio-economic reforms;
6) the contradictions of dual power became a prerequisite for a change of power.
Progress of the October Revolution of 1917:
By the autumn of 1917, the political and socio-economic aggravation of the situation had reached its peak. Industry, the financial sector, the transport system and agriculture were all in ruins. Also, national contradictions intensified in the country, food prices rose, while wages only went down, and the situation at the front became simply catastrophic. And with all this, the Provisional Government, recently formed from the bourgeoisie, not only did not fulfill the principles it proclaimed, but also did not have a plan to lead the country out of the crisis.
All this only led to the strengthening of extreme left forces in the country. It was at this point that the Bolshevik Party began planning a coup. Among other things, the Bolsheviks promised to carry out agrarian reform and immediately end the war. The Bolsheviks quickly won the support of workers, soldiers and peasants, and by the beginning of September 1917, a majority in the Soviets of Petrograd and Moscow. It is worth noting that some Bolsheviks adhered to the strategy of peacefully coming to power, while others, on the contrary, adhered to the strategy of seizing power by force.
Result: Bolshevik Victory, Beginning Civil War, Creation of the Russian Soviet Republic
Main decisions of the Second Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies:
An appeal to “Workers, Soldiers and Peasants!”, which said that the congress would take power into its own hands, and in the localities all power would pass to the Councils of Workers, Soldiers and Peasants’ Deputies, which must ensure a genuine revolutionary order;
Peace Decree;
Decree on land;
Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia;
Resolutions were also adopted: on the transfer of local power to the Soviets; on the release of arrested members of land committees; on the abolition of the death penalty at the front; about the immediate arrest of the head of the former Provisional bourgeois government A.F. Kerensky; on the fight against counter-revolutionary actions; on the formation of temporary revolutionary committees in the army. Appeals were accepted to the Cossacks with an appeal to go over to the side of Soviet power and to the railway workers - to maintain order on the railway.
Causes, course and results of the February Revolution and its features. Causes of the crises of the Provisional Government. Causes, course and results of the October Revolution.
The answer should start with analysis reasons for the February Revolution. Then we should note the peculiarity of this revolution, its main events and results.
Considering the events of February-October 1917, it is necessary to analyze in detail the causes of the crises of the Provisional Government and their consequences, the reasons for the rapid growth of the Bolshevik influence among the population. In conclusion, it is necessary to express your own (reasoned) opinion on the question of the inevitability of the Bolsheviks coming to power, as well as the peculiarities of the October events of 1917 (can they be considered a revolution?).
Sample answer plan:
1. February Revolution , its main events and results (February 23-27, 1917).
Causes of the revolution. Economic and political crisis, destabilization of the situation due to the protracted First World War; the decline of the moral authority of tsarism due to “Rasputinism” (what is this? Answer: this refers to the enormous influence of G. Rasputin on the royal family, under whose patronage appointments to all top posts took place (an indicator of the decomposition of the regime).
A characteristic feature of the February Revolution is its spontaneous nature (not a single party was ready for the revolution).
Main events:
February 23, 1917. - the beginning of a strike at the Putilov plant (at first economic slogans prevailed: to improve the food supply of St. Petersburg, etc.).
February 26- mass demonstrations in Petrograd under anti-war slogans, clashes with police and troops.
February 27- the transition of the Petrograd garrison to the side of the rebels; formation of the Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies (Petrosovet) and the Provisional Committee of the State Duma.
2nd of March- Nicholas II’s abdication for himself and for his son Alexei in favor of his brother Mikhail Alexandrovich (this was Nicholas’s trick, since according to the law on succession to the throne he did not have the right to abdicate for his son → apparently he planned to declare his abdication illegal in the near future). At the same time, the Petrograd Soviet and the Temporary Committee of the State Duma agreed to create Provisional Government(should have operated until the convening of the Constituent Assembly) on the basis of the Provisional Committee of the State Duma, but under the control of the Petrograd Soviet (the majority of ministerial portfolios were received by the Cadets and Octobrists, from the Petrograd Soviet the right-wing Socialist Revolutionary Kerensky entered the Government as Minister of Justice). The Petrograd Soviet also issued Order No. 1(abolition of honor in the army, introduction of soldiers' committees and elected commanders). Its meaning is that the soldiers fully supported the Petrograd Soviet, but at the same time the disintegration of the army began, a complete decline in military discipline.
March, 3rd- Michael’s abdication of the throne, but Russia was not proclaimed a republic (according to the “party in power” - the Cadets - this could only be done by the Constituent Assembly).
Results of the revolution: overthrow of the monarchy, the actual establishment of a republic (officially proclaimed only on September 1, 1917); Maximum democratic rights and freedoms of the population and universal suffrage were proclaimed. Thus, the February Revolution of 1917 can be considered a completed bourgeois-democratic revolution.
2. Dual power regime. Crisis of the Provisional Government. One of the results of the February Revolution was the establishment dual power(the presence of two alternative centers of power: the Petrograd Soviet and the Provisional Government). This was one of the reasons for the extreme instability of the political situation, reflected in the crises of the Provisional Government.
First crisis– April: because of the speech of the leader of the cadets, Minister of Foreign Affairs Miliukov, with a note about continuing the war to a victorious end. Result: mass anti-war demonstrations and the resignation of Miliukov and Guchkov (Minister of War, leader of the Octobrists).
Second crisis– June-July. Cause: an unsuccessful offensive at the front, followed by mass anti-war demonstrations; an attempt by the Bolsheviks to seize power under their cover → demonstrations were shot by troops, the Bolsheviks were outlawed as “German spies”; The composition of the Provisional Government changed (it included the leaders of the Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries from the Petrograd Soviet, Kerensky became the chairman). Bottom line: the end of dual power, the center of power became the Provisional Government.
Third crisis– August. Cause: an attempt by the Supreme Commander-in-Chief General Kornilov to seize power on August 26-27 (talk in more detail about the features of the “Kornilov rebellion”, the position of Kerensky, the Cadets, the Socialist Revolutionaries and other parties). The rebellion was suppressed with the active participation of the Bolsheviks. Consequence– a sharp increase in their authority, Bolshevization of the Soviets in September 1917).
The general cause of the crises of the Provisional Government is persistent reluctance to solve pressing problems (about war, land, political system) before the convening of the Constituent Assembly. Moreover, elections to the Constituent Assembly were constantly postponed, which led to a decline in the authority of the government. One of the reasons for this government position is the idea of “non-decision” of the cadets (what is its essence?).
Result: catastrophic deterioration of the situation in the country.
Was the Bolsheviks' rise to power inevitable? Most historians currently subscribe to the “two alternatives theory.” Its essence: the situation in the country by the autumn of 1917, due to the inaction of the Provisional Government, had deteriorated so much that it was now possible to get out of the crisis only with the help of tough radical measures, that is, the establishment of a dictatorship either “from the right” (military, Kornilov) or “ on the left" (Bolsheviks). Both of them promised to quickly solve all problems, without waiting for elections to the Constituent Assembly. The attempt to establish a dictatorship “on the right” failed, leaving the only alternative - the dictatorship “on the left” of the Bolsheviks.
Conclusion: the Bolsheviks’ rise to power in those specific historical conditions is logical and natural.
3. October Revolution.
Its feature is this is its almost bloodless nature (minimal number of casualties during the storming of the Winter Palace and the capture of key objects in Petrograd).
When describing the events of October 24-25, it is necessary to analyze Lenin’s plan and answer the question of why the seizure of power was timed to coincide with the opening of the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets (the goal is to confront the deputies with the fact of a change of power).
Main events:
October 24– the seizure of key objects in Petrograd by the Red Guard and the Military Revolutionary Committee of the RSDLP(b).
the 25th of October- capture of the Winter Palace, arrest of the Provisional Government, proclamation of Soviet power.
Decisions of the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets and their significance. First events Soviet power in political, economic, social, national and cultural spheres. Reasons for the “triumphant march” of Soviet power.
When preparing this topic, it is necessary to analyze the first decrees of Soviet power, to identify the reasons for the so-called “triumphal march” of Soviet power in November-December 1917. It is also necessary to characterize new structure authorities; main events in the socio-economic, political and cultural spheres, their results and consequences.
Sample answer plan:
1. II All-Russian Congress of Soviets: the first decrees of Soviet power.
– "decree on peace"“- an announcement of Russia’s withdrawal from the war, an appeal to all warring powers to begin negotiations for peace “without annexations and indemnities.”
– "decree on land“- the socialist-revolutionary land socialization program, popular among the peasants, was actually adopted (abolition of private ownership of land, gratuitous confiscation of landowners’ lands and division of it among the peasants according to labor and consumer standards) → the demands of the peasants were fully satisfied.
– "decree on power» – proclamation of the transfer of power to the Soviets; creation of a new power structure, elimination of the principle of separation of powers as bourgeois.
New system authorities:
It should be noted that initially the Bolsheviks approached all socialist parties with a proposal to join the Council of People's Commissars and the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, but only the Left Socialist Revolutionaries agreed (they received about 1/3 of the seats). Thus, until July 1918, the government was bipartisan.
Reasons for the “triumphant march of Soviet power” those. relatively peaceful (except for Moscow) and rapid establishment throughout the country: the almost instantaneous implementation by the Bolsheviks (albeit in a declarative form) of their promises, which initially ensured the support of the population, especially the peasants.
2. Socio-economic activities:
October-November 1917. – decrees on the introduction of an 8-hour working day and worker control at enterprises; nationalization of banks and large enterprises;
March 1918. – after the loss of grain-producing regions (Ukraine, etc.), the introduction of a food monopoly and fixed food prices.
3. Activities in the field of national policy:
November 2, 1917. – "Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia": abolition of national privileges and restrictions; the right of nations to self-determination and the creation of their own states (Poland, Finland and the Baltic peoples immediately took advantage of this right).
Result: growing sympathy for Soviet Russia on the part of colonial and semi-colonial countries, as well as the national outskirts of Russia itself.
4. Activities in the field of education and culture:
January 1918- a decree on the separation of church from state and school from church, a decree on the abolition of the class-lesson education system, the introduction of a new calendar.
5. Political events:
January 3, 1918. – « Declaration of the Rights of Working and Exploited People"(combined all previous decrees on rights; was considered as an introduction to the Constitution).
January 5-6, 1918. - opening and dispersal of the Constituent Assembly by the Bolsheviks (for refusing to recognize the October Revolution and subsequent decrees of Soviet power as legal).
January 10, 1918. – III Congress of Soviets; approved the “Declaration” on January 3, 1918, proclaimed Russia a federation (RSFSR), confirmed the decree of the Second Congress on the socialization of the land.
July 1918. - Adoption first Constitution of the RSFSR(consolidated the new structure of power of the Soviets), its characteristic feature is a pronounced ideologization (course towards world revolution, etc.), deprivation of voting rights of the exploiting classes.
In conclusion, it should be noted that after the conclusion of the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty in March 1918, the Bolsheviks found themselves in an extremely difficult situation and, in order to avoid starvation in the cities, were forced to begin requisitioning grain from the peasants (through the poor peasants' committees created in June 1918). Bottom line: growth of peasant discontent, which was taken advantage of by all counter-revolutionary forces from the Socialist Revolutionaries and Mensheviks to the monarchists.
July 1918- an unsuccessful rebellion of the Left Social Revolutionaries (they opposed the new peasant policy of the Bolsheviks and peace with Germany).
Result: the formation of a one-party, only Bolshevik government and a one-party political system in the country.
- January
- February
- April
- August
- September
- October
- November
- December
January Strikes in Petrograd, rescue of Riga and suffragettes at the White House
Revolution On January 22 (January 9, old style), on the anniversary of Bloody Sunday, the largest strike during the war began in Petrograd, more than 145 thousand workers of the Vyborg, Narva and Moscow regions took part in it. The demonstrations were dispersed by the Cossacks. Strikes also took place in Moscow, Kazan, Kharkov and other major cities of the Russian Empire; in total, more than 200 thousand people went on strike in January 1917.
War On January 5 (December 23, 1916, old style), the Russian army launched an offensive on the Northern Front in the Mitava region (modern Jelgava in Latvia). An unexpected blow made it possible to break through the line of fortifications of the German army and move the front away from Riga. The initial success of the Mitau operation could not be consolidated: the soldiers of the 2nd and 6th Siberian Corps rebelled and refused to take part in the hostilities. In addition, the command of the Northern Front refused to provide reinforcements. The operation was terminated on January 11 (December 29).
Picket at the gates of the White House. Washington, January 26, 1917 Library of CongressOn January 10, a picket of the suffrage movement known as the “Silent Watchmen” begins at the White House in Washington. Over the next two and a half years, women picketed the residence of the American president six days a week, demanding equal voting rights with men. During this time, they were repeatedly beaten, detained for “obstructing traffic,” and tortured during arrests. The picketing ended on June 4, 1919, when both houses of Congress passed the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State on account of sex.”
February Submarine warfare, Duma opposition and the Mexican constitution
Revolution On February 27 (14), the first meeting of the State Duma in 1917 opened. It was supposed to take place in January, but at the beginning of the year, by decree of the emperor, it was postponed to a later date. A demonstration took place near the Tauride Palace; many deputies at the meeting demanded the resignation of the government. The leader of the Trudovik faction, Alexander Kerensky, called for fighting the authorities not only by legal means, but also with the help of “physical elimination.”
War
German submarine U-14. 1910s Library of Congress On February 1, Germany began unrestricted submarine warfare. German submarines easily overcame obstacles and attacked both military convoys and civilian ships. During the first week of February, 35 steamships were sunk in the English Channel and on its western approaches. For the entire month, the German fleet lost only 4 submarines out of 34, and British troops were cut off from supplies due to constant attacks on merchant ships in the strait and in the Atlantic.
World On February 5, Mexico published the text of the Constitution adopted in January by the Constituent Assembly. The new fundamental law transferred all lands to the state, reduced the powers of the church to a minimum, separated the branches of government and established an eight-hour working day. Thus, the revolutionaries achieved the fulfillment of all their demands. However, the armed struggle between the government and the rebel leaders continued even after this. The revolution began in 1910 with the struggle against the dictatorship of President Porfirio Diaz. Then peasants joined the movement, and land reform became the main goal.
March Abdication in Pskov, capture of Baghdad and the first jazz record
Revolution On March 8 (February 23), International Women's Day, another strike began, which developed into a general strike. Workers from the Vyborg side broke through to Nevsky Prospekt, the strike turned into a political action. On March 11 (February 26), as a result of clashes, demonstrators died, guard regiments began to go over to the side of the rebels, and the unrest could not be extinguished. On March 15 (2) in Pskov, Nicholas II signed an act of abdication, and a Provisional Government was formed in Petrograd, headed by the leader of the Zemstvo Union, Prince Georgy Lvov.
War
British troops enter Baghdad. March 11, 1917 Wikimedia Commons On March 11, British troops took Baghdad, forcing the Ottoman army to retreat. Great Britain took revenge for its defeat at Kut in early 1916, when the defenders of the fortress were forced to capitulate after a lengthy siege. In January 1917, British troops first recaptured Kut and then advanced north, surprising the Ottoman army and entering Baghdad. This allowed the British to gain a foothold in Mesopotamia, and the Ottoman Empire lost control of yet another territory.
"Livery Stable Blues" performed by the Original Dixieland Jass Band. 1917On March 7, the first commercial jazz recording goes on sale - the single “Livery Stable Blues” by the white orchestra Original Dixieland Jass Band. The release of this record is associated with an explosion in the popularity of jazz. 1917 also saw the birth of future jazz musicians Ella Fitzgerald (April 25), Thelonious Monk (October 10), and Dizzy Gillespie (October 21).
April Lenin's Theses, Wilson's War and Gandhi's Nonviolent Protest
Revolution
A sketch of the April Theses. Manuscript of Vladimir Lenin. 1917 RIA News" On April 9 (March 27), the Provisional Government sent a note to France and Great Britain, in which it assured the allies that Russia would not leave the war and would not conclude a separate peace. In response, the Petrograd Soviet, consisting of Bolsheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries, led soldiers and workers to an anti-war demonstration. The April crisis led to a split between the Provisional Government and the Soviets. At the same time, Lenin published his “April Theses” - a program of action for the Bolsheviks: ending the war; refusal to support the Provisional Government; a new, proletarian revolution.
War On April 6, the United States entered the First world war. Until this point, the United States had maintained neutrality, but American ships were increasingly becoming victims of the submarine war that Germany had been waging since February. The reason for the war was also a telegram from German Foreign Minister Arthur Zimmermann, in which he asked the German ambassador to the United States to achieve an alliance with Mexico. The British intercepted the telegram, deciphered it and presented it to US President Woodrow Wilson, who made it public. Shortly thereafter, with more American ships sunk in the Atlantic, Congress declared war on Germany.
World On April 10, 47-year-old lawyer and social activist Mohandas Gandhi launched India's first civil disobedience campaign. Gandhi called this form of protest satyagraha (from Sanskrit “satya” means “truth” and “agraha” means “firmness”). In the Champaran district, he began to fight the colonial authorities who were forcing peasants to grow indigo and other commercial crops instead of cereals that could be eaten. The main goal was the independence of India from the British Empire. The first stage of peaceful resistance ended with Gandhi's arrest. Thousands of people demanded his release, calling him Mahatma - the Great Soul, and the police had to release Gandhi within a few days.
May Coalition Government, Commander-in-Chief Pétain and the Birth of Surrealism
Revolution The April crisis, primarily the statement by Foreign Minister Miliukov about “war to a victorious end,” led to a change of government. The new coalition included six socialists: the Socialist Revolutionary Kerensky became the Minister of War and Navy, the leader of the Socialist Revolutionary Party Viktor Chernov became the Minister of Agriculture, the Mensheviks Irakli Tsereteli and Matvei Skobelev, the Trudovik Pavel Pereverzev and the People's Socialist Alexei Peshekhonov also joined the coalition.
War On May 15, General Henri Philippe Pétain became commander-in-chief of the French army. After the Battle of Verdun, which lasted almost the entire 1916, Pétain became one of the most revered generals by soldiers. In the spring of 1917, Commander-in-Chief Robert Nivelle sent troops to break through the German front; the losses of the French army reached 100 thousand people killed and wounded. A crisis began in the army - the soldiers rebelled. Pétain calmed the troops, promised to abandon suicidal attacks, and shot the instigators of the rebellion. Later, in 1940, he would head the government of the Vichy regime, which collaborated with the Nazis.
Leonid Myasin as a Chinese magician. Costume based on Picasso's sketch for the ballet "Parade". Photo by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917
Horse. Costume based on Picasso's sketch for the ballet "Parade". Photo by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917© Victoria and Albert Museum, London
American manager. Costume based on Picasso's sketch for the ballet "Parade". Photo by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917 © Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Acrobat. Costume based on Picasso's sketch for the ballet "Parade". Photo by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917© Victoria and Albert Museum, London
American baby. Costume based on Picasso's sketch for the ballet "Parade". Photo by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917© Victoria and Albert Museum, London
French manager. Costume based on Picasso's sketch for the ballet "Parade". Photo by Harry Lachman. Paris, 1917© Victoria and Albert Museum, London
On May 18, the term “surrealism” appeared. The poet Guillaume Apollinaire applied this definition to the ballet “Parade”. The performance, with music by Erik Satie, script by Jean Cocteau, costumes by Pablo Picasso and choreography by Leonid Massine, which was based on a parade of farce circus performers, caused a real scandal. The audience whistled, critics after the premiere called the production a stain on the reputation of Sergei Diaghilev’s Russian Ballet and a blow to French society. Apollinaire passionately defended ballet in his manifesto "Pa-rad and the New Spirit," explaining that this unity of scenery, costumes and choreography "led to a kind of sur-réalisme" in which the New Spirit could take off.
June All-Russian Central Executive Committee, abdication of Constantine I and the Espionage Act
Revolution On June 16 (3) the Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies opened in Petrograd. The majority there were Socialist Revolutionaries and Mensheviks. Lenin’s “April Theses” on ending the war and transferring power to the Soviets were rejected. Following the results of the congress, the deputies chose their leadership - the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTsIK), the head of which was the Menshevik Nikolai Chkheidze.
War On June 11, King Constantine I of Greece abdicated the throne under pressure from the Entente. Since the beginning of the war, the monarch maintained neutrality, despite government opposition. Constantine I was married to the sister of the German Kaiser Wilhelm II, which gave rise to reproaches for the pro-German position of the king. The head of government, Eleftherios Venizelos, approved the British landing in Thessaloniki, was dismissed, but then formed the opposition Provisional Government of National Defense. Dual power arose in the country, and as a result, Constantine I abdicated the throne and went to Switzerland, passing the throne to his son Alexander, who had no real power as king.
Winsor Mackay. Cartoon of the Espionage Act from the New York American. May 1917 Library of Congress On June 15, the United States adopted the “Espionage Act,” a federal law that was intended to strengthen the national security of a country that had just entered the First World War, but was immediately perceived as an attack on freedom of speech. In particular, it prohibits the dissemination of information that could harm the US military or contribute to the success of its enemies. The Espionage Act is still used today - in particular, its violation is charged with Edward Snowden, who made public data about how American intelligence agencies spy on people around the world.
July Government crisis, failed offensive and execution of Mata Hari
Revolution On July 17-18 (4-5) in Petrograd, demonstrations of anarchists and Bolsheviks lead to clashes with government troops. The armed uprising failed, the Bolshevik leaders Lenin and Zinoviev had to flee the capital. At the same time, a crisis is occurring in the Provisional Government: first the cadets leave it in protest against the granting of broad powers to the Ukrainian Central Rada, and then the chairman of the government, Prince Georgy Lvov, also resigns.
War At the end of June, the Russian army began preparations for a large-scale strategic offensive. On July 1 (June 18), the offensive began on the Southwestern Front in the direction of Lvov. In the first two days, the troops made significant progress, which allowed Minister of War and Navy Kerensky to declare the “great triumph of the revolution.” On July 6 (June 23), the 8th Army of General Lavr Kornilov attacked the positions of the Austro-Hungarian troops. But a week later the impulse dried up: ferment began in the army, military committees decided to abandon hostilities. Meanwhile, the Austro-German command transferred additional forces to this section of the front. The counter-offensive turned into Russian army a catastrophe: entire divisions fled from the front.
Mata Hari in stage costume. Postcard. 1906Bibliothèque Marguerite Durand
Mata Hari on the day of her arrest. 1917 Wikimedia Commons
On July 24, the trial of the Dutch dancer Margaret Gertrud Zelle, better known by her stage name Mata Hari, began in France. She was accused of spying for Germany and transmitting information to the Germans that caused the death of several divisions of soldiers. The very next day the court sentenced Mata Hari to death. She was shot on October 15, 1917, she was 41 years old.
August Mustard, the Bolshevik Congress and the miraculous apparition of the Virgin Mary
Revolution On August 6 (July 24), the second coalition government was formed, already headed by. After the July Days, the provisional government returned the death penalty and announced its intentions to liquidate the Soviets. In Moscow, on the initiative of the government, a State Conference was convened with the participation of all political forces, except the Bolsheviks, which demanded the gradual elimination of military committees, a ban on rallies and meetings, and the return of the death penalty. The Bolsheviks, in turn, held a party congress in Petrograd, at which they declared the need for an armed uprising.
War In August, the most difficult stage of the Battle of Passchendaele in Belgium (the Third Battle of Ypres), which had been going on since July 11, began. British troops decided to break through the German front, the main target being the German submarine base. On the third day of the battle, the German army used a new poisonous gas - mustard gas: it affected the skin and eyes, the losses from it were greater than from any other chemical weapon during the war. In August, due to rains, the area turned into an impassable swamp, in which the armies fought. The tanks got stuck in the mud. The British were unable to overcome the German fortifications, and only in October were they able to advance.
Lucia Santos, Francisco Marto and Jacinta Marto. Fatima, Portugal, 1917 Wikimedia Commons From May to October 1917, every 13th, three children from the Portuguese city of Fatima - Lucia Santos and her cousin and sister Francisco and Jacinta Marta - according to them, the Virgin Mary appeared. The exception was on August 13, when the children were arrested by a local official and journalist, Arthur Santos, a well-known anti-clerical and anti-monarchist in the area. He tried to get them to admit that they had not actually seen any miracles, but in vain. Having been released from arrest, the children witnessed the next apparition of the Virgin Mary on August 19. The field where this happened became a place of mass pilgrimage back in 1917.
September Kornilov mutiny, surrender of Riga and bacterial viruses
Revolution On September 8 (August 26), the Supreme Commander-in-Chief presented an ultimatum to the Provisional Government. He demanded that full power be transferred to him before the convening of the Constituent Assembly. In response, Kornilov was called a rebel. The troops loyal to the Supreme Commander-in-Chief moved towards Petrograd, but under the influence of agitators they stopped at the approaches to the capital. After the failure of the rebellion, the government collapsed: it was abandoned by the Cadets who supported Kornilov’s speech. During the transition period, the highest authority was formed - the Directory, headed by Kerensky.
War
German infantry in Riga. September 1917© IWM (Q 86949)
Kaiser Wilhelm II and Leopold of Bavaria on the banks of the Western Dvina (Daugava). Riga, September 1917© IWM (Q 70272)
Russian prisoners of war. Riga, September 1917© IWM (Q 86680)
On September 1, German troops began shelling the positions of the Russian army near Riga. This was followed by a massive offensive aimed at encircling the 12th Army. In two days, Russian troops lost 25 thousand people killed and already left Riga on September 3. However, the 12th Army emerged from encirclement. The city was one of the main targets of the German army on the Eastern Front. After the capture of Riga, fears arose that the Germans would be able to occupy Petrograd. Panic arose in the Russian capital and preparations for evacuation began.
World On September 3, French-Canadian microbiologist Felix d'Herelle, working at the Pasteur Institute in Paris, published an article describing bacteriophages - viruses that infect bacteria. This is one of the most ancient and numerous groups of viruses, which is now used in medicine as an alternative to antibiotics, and in biology as a tool for genetic engineering. Initially, bacteriophages were described in 1915 by the Englishman Frederic Twort (calling them bacteriolytic agents), but his research went unnoticed, and d’Herelle made his discovery on his own.
October Attack on Petrograd, capture of the Moonsund Islands and Cleopatra's navel
Revolution On October 8 (September 25), the composition of the third coalition government was announced, of which Kerensky remained chairman. At this time, in Petrograd, the Bolsheviks began preparing an armed uprising. They received a majority in the Petrograd Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, and on October 29 (16) the proposal of the head of the Petrograd Soviet, Leon Trotsky, was approved to create a Military Revolutionary Committee, formally - to protect against the Kornilovites and the German troops approaching the capital. After this, the Petrograd garrison came under the control of the Petrograd Soviet.
War On October 12, German troops began an operation to capture the Russian-owned Moonsund Islands in the Baltic Sea. The operation was a combination: the ground forces, the navy, and aviation (airplanes and airships) took part in it. The German Navy unexpectedly encountered fierce resistance from the Russian fleet. Only by October 17 did the German dreadnoughts manage to reach the archipelago and gain control over it.
Excerpt from the film “Cleopatra” (1917)On October 14, “Cleopatra” is released, the most expensive film of its time, the budget of which was 500 thousand dollars (almost 10 million dollars in today’s money). The title role stars Theda Bara, one of the main sex symbols of the 1910s. The film was subject to significant censorship - for example, during screenings in Chicago, the scene in which Cleopatra stands in front of Caesar with an “uncovered navel” and “ambiguously leans” towards the Roman ruler was cut from the first part. The last two complete copies of the film were burned in a fire at Fox studios in 1937, and it is now considered lost, with only minor fragments surviving.
November Bolshevik coup, battle from “A Farewell to Arms!” and Jews in Palestine
Revolution On November 7 (October 25), Petrograd was almost completely in the hands of the Military Revolutionary Committee, which issued an appeal “To the citizens of Russia!”, announcing that power had transferred to the Petrograd Soviet. On the night of November 7–8 (October 25–26), the Bolsheviks and their political allies took the Winter Palace and arrested the ministers of the Provisional Government. The next day, the Second Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies formed government bodies and adopted decrees on peace and land.
War
Retreat of the Italian army during the Battle of Caporetto. November 1917 Italian Army Photographers / Wikimedia Commons On November 9, the active phase of the Battle of Caporetto in northeastern Italy ended. It began on October 24, when the 14th Army under the command of General Otto von Below, consisting of German and Austro-Hungarian divisions, broke through the Italian front. The Italian army, demoralized by the chemical attack, began to retreat. The Entente allies transferred additional forces to this area, but German-Austrian troops continued to advance forward. By November 9, the Italian army was forced to retreat across the Piave River. Ernest Hemingway described this retreat in his novel A Farewell to Arms! The defeat at Caporetto led to the resignation of the Italian government and commander-in-chief Luigi Cadorna; the army of the kingdom lost more than 70 thousand people killed and wounded.
World On November 2, British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour sent an official letter to Lord Walter Rothschild, a representative of the British Jewish community, for subsequent transmission to the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland. The purpose of the letter was to enlist the support of not only British, but also American representatives of the diaspora, so that they would contribute to a more active US participation in the First World War. Minister Balfour stated that the Government was "considering with approval the question of establishing a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine." This document was called the Balfour Declaration and became the basis for the post-war settlement in Palestine and the receipt by Great Britain of a mandate over the territories, and in the future - for the creation of the State of Israel.
December Peace negotiations, Cheka and NHL
Revolution By mid-December, the new government, the Council of People's Commissars, and the highest authority, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, included the Left Socialist Revolutionaries. On December 20 (7), the Council of People's Commissars created the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission to Combat Counter-Revolution and Sabotage (VChK). And on December 26 (13), Lenin’s “Theses on the Constituent Assembly” appeared in Pravda, which stated that the composition of the assembly (where the right Socialist Revolutionaries had the majority) did not correspond to the will of the people.
War
Meeting of the RSFSR delegation at the Brest-Litovsk station. Early 1918 Wikimedia Commons On December 3 (November 20), negotiations between Germany and Soviet Russia on an armistice begin in Brest-Litovsk. Having adopted, on the one hand, the Decree on Peace at the Second Congress of Soviets and hoping for an early revolution in the countries of Central Europe, on the other, the Bolsheviks initiated these negotiations, but tried their best to delay them. Three months later, on March 3, despite the desperate intra-party struggle of the Bolsheviks, peace was concluded, but even its main supporter, Vladimir Lenin, called it “obscene”: Russia agreed to pay colossal reparations and the loss of Western territories with a total area of 780 thousand square kilometers with a population more than 50 million people. The Entente called the Brest-Litovsk Treaty a “political crime.” However, Russia, in fact, did not have to fulfill its conditions: in November 1918, Germany was defeated in the First World War. Some of the seized territories became part of the USSR following the Civil War, some were occupied Soviet Union at the beginning of World War II.
World On December 19, the first match in the history of the National Hockey League took place, which arose as a result of disagreements within the National Hockey Association, which had existed since 1909. The NHL's opening match featured Toronto Arenas and the Montreal Wanderers. Two more Canadian teams took part in the first championship - the Montreal Canadiens and the Ottawa Senators, which, unlike the first two clubs, still exist. Toronto became the champion of the first season. The NHL was predicted to collapse quickly: in the third year of the war, many hockey players went to the front. However, the league turned out to be a successful project and soon attracted clubs not only from Canada, but also from the United States.
Lenin proclaims Soviet power.
Painting by V.A. Serova. 1962
Causes of the revolution
Economic and financial crisis (increasing unemployment, inflation, rising prices, deteriorating food supplies, threat of famine, etc.)
Political crisis (the inability of the government to solve problems in the country, crises of the Provisional Government)
Unresolved peasant question, impoverishment of peasants
Growing dissatisfaction in the country with the activities of the government: strikes, unrest at national ocarinas, etc.
The country is tired of a protracted war
Goals of the revolution
Establishing the power of workers and peasants
Solving pressing issues in society
Events before the revolution
On July 3-5, 1917, the Provisional Government switched to tough measures: it suppressed peaceful demonstrations against the government, arrests began, the Bolsheviks were outlawed, the death penalty was restored, the end of dual power.
July 26 - August 3 - 6th Congress of the RSDLP (b) - taken course towards socialist revolution.
August - State meeting in Moscow, Kornilova L.G. they wanted to declare him a military dictator and simultaneously disperse all the Soviets. An active popular uprising disrupted the plans. Increasing the authority of the Bolsheviks.
October 10 - meeting of the Bolshevik Central Committee, V.I. Lenin spoke, he emphasized that it was necessary to take power. 10 people - for, against - Kamenev and Zinoviev. Elected Political Bureau- headed by Lenin.
October 12 - the executive committee of the Petrograd Soviet (headed by L.D. Trotsky) adopted a regulation on Petrograd Military Revolutionary Committee(temporary revolutionary committee) - the legal headquarters for preparing the uprising. Created WRC- temporary revolutionary center (Ya.M. Sverdlov, F.E. Dzerzhinsky, A.S. Bubnov, M.S. Uritsky and I.V. Stalin).
October 18 Kamenev in the newspaper “New Life” - with a protest against the uprising.
Articles by Lenin V.I. about the need for revolution
"The Bolsheviks must take power"
"The crisis is ripe"
"Marxism and Rebellion"
"Advice from an Outsider"
Progress of main events
October 24 - The Provisional Government ordered the cadets to seize the printing house of the Bolshevik newspaper "Rabochy Put" and arrest the members of the Military Revolutionary Committee who were in Smolny.
By the evening of October 24, revolutionary troops occupied the Central Telegraph, Izmailovsky Station, controlled bridges, and blocked all cadet schools. The Military Revolutionary Committee sent a telegram to Kronstadt and Tsentrobalt about calling the ships of the Baltic Fleet. The order was carried out.
Lenin V.I. wrote on October 24 to the Bolsheviks that it was urgent to act, “Delay is like death!” He arrived in Smolny and began to personally lead the uprising. The post office, train station, and central power station are busy. By morning the Provisional Government was overthrown. The Military Revolutionary Committee adopted the appeal “ To citizens of Russia"(Lenin wrote) about the seizure of power by the Soviets and " To the rear and the front."
October 25 - meeting of the Petrograd Soviet. Lenin gave a speech, uttering the famous words: “Comrades! The workers’ and peasants’ revolution, the need for which the Bolsheviks were always talking about, has come true.”
October 25, 21:40- cruiser salvo "Aurora" became the signal for the storming of the Winter Palace, the Provisional Government was arrested.
25 October 22h .40 min. - 2nd Congress of Soviets, proclamation of Soviet power.
Reasons for the victory of the Great October Socialist Revolution
The main driving force was the proletariat, which had experience of struggle.
Led by the Bolshevik Party, RSDLP(b), led by V.I. Lenin, which had enormous authority among the people.
A clearly thought-out plan for the uprising, the presence of a program of action after the victory, which was supported by the people.
Union of the proletariat and peasantry.
Results of the revolution
Overthrow of the Provisional Government
Establishment of Soviet power
The people came to power - workers and peasants
The new government immediately began resolving the main issues: exiting the war, transferring land to peasants, controlling factories by workers, overcoming devastation.
October Revolution of 1917. Chronicle of events
Editor's responseOn the night of October 25, 1917, an armed uprising began in Petrograd, during which the current government was overthrown and power was transferred to the Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies. The most important objects were captured - bridges, telegraphs, government offices, and at 2 a.m. on October 26, the Winter Palace was taken and the Provisional Government was arrested.
V. I. Lenin. Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org
Prerequisites for the October Revolution
The February Revolution of 1917, which was greeted with enthusiasm, although it put an end to the absolute monarchy in Russia, very soon disappointed the revolutionary-minded “lower strata” - the army, workers and peasants, who expected it to end the war, transfer land to the peasants, ease working conditions for workers and democratic power devices. Instead, the Provisional Government continued the war, assuring the Western allies of their fidelity to their obligations; in the summer of 1917, on his orders, a large-scale offensive began, which ended in disaster due to the collapse of discipline in the army. Attempts to carry out land reform and introduce an 8-hour working day in factories were blocked by the majority in the Provisional Government. Autocracy was not completely abolished - the question of whether Russia should be a monarchy or a republic was postponed by the Provisional Government until the convening of the Constituent Assembly. The situation was also aggravated by the growing anarchy in the country: desertion from the army assumed gigantic proportions, unauthorized “redistributions” of land began in villages, and thousands of landowners’ estates were burned. Poland and Finland declared independence, nationally minded separatists claimed power in Kyiv, and their own autonomous government was created in Siberia.
Counter-revolutionary armored car "Austin" surrounded by cadets at the Winter Palace. 1917 Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org
At the same time, a powerful system of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies emerged in the country, which became an alternative to the bodies of the Provisional Government. Soviets began to form during the 1905 revolution. They were supported by numerous factory and peasant committees, police and soldiers' councils. Unlike the Provisional Government, they demanded an immediate end to the war and reforms, which found increasing support among the embittered masses. The dual power in the country becomes obvious - the generals in the person of Alexei Kaledin and Lavr Kornilov demand the dispersal of the Soviets, and the Provisional Government in July 1917 carried out mass arrests of deputies of the Petrograd Soviet, and at the same time demonstrations took place in Petrograd under the slogan “All power to the Soviets!”
Armed uprising in Petrograd
The Bolsheviks headed for an armed uprising in August 1917. On October 16, the Bolshevik Central Committee decided to prepare an uprising; two days after this, the Petrograd garrison declared disobedience to the Provisional Government, and on October 21, a meeting of representatives of the regiments recognized the Petrograd Soviet as the only legitimate authority. From October 24, troops of the Military Revolutionary Committee occupied key points in Petrograd: train stations, bridges, banks, telegraphs, printing houses and power plants.
The Provisional Government was preparing for this station, but the coup that took place on the night of October 25 came as a complete surprise to him. Instead of the expected mass demonstrations of the garrison regiments, detachments of the working Red Guard and sailors of the Baltic Fleet simply took control of key objects - without firing a single shot, putting an end to dual power in Russia. On the morning of October 25, only the Winter Palace, surrounded by Red Guard detachments, remained under the control of the Provisional Government.
At 10 a.m. on October 25, the Military Revolutionary Committee issued an appeal in which it announced that all “state power had passed into the hands of the body of the Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies.” At 21:00, a blank shot from the Baltic Fleet cruiser Aurora signaled the start of the assault on the Winter Palace, and at 2 a.m. on October 26, the Provisional Government was arrested.
Cruiser Aurora". Photo: Commons.wikimedia.org
On the evening of October 25, the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets opened in Smolny, proclaiming the transfer of all power to the Soviets.
On October 26, the congress adopted the Decree on Peace, which invited all warring countries to begin negotiations on the conclusion of a general democratic peace, and the Decree on Land, according to which the land of the landowners was to be transferred to the peasants, and all mineral resources, forests and waters were nationalized.
The congress also formed a government, the Council of People's Commissars headed by Vladimir Lenin - the first highest body state power Soviet Russia.
On October 29, the Council of People's Commissars adopted the Decree on the eight-hour working day, and on November 2, the Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia, which proclaimed the equality and sovereignty of all peoples of the country, the abolition of national and religious privileges and restrictions.
On November 23, a decree “On the abolition of estates and civil ranks” was issued, proclaiming the legal equality of all citizens of Russia.
Simultaneously with the uprising in Petrograd on October 25, the Military Revolutionary Committee of the Moscow Council also took control of all important strategic objects of Moscow: the arsenal, telegraph, State Bank, etc. However, on October 28, the Committee of Public Safety, headed by the Chairman of the City Duma Vadim Rudnev, under with the support of the cadets and Cossacks, he began military operations against the Soviet.
Fighting in Moscow continued until November 3, when the Committee of Public Security agreed to lay down arms. The October Revolution was immediately supported in the Central Industrial Region, where local Soviets of Workers' Deputies had already effectively established their power; in the Baltics and Belarus, Soviet power was established in October - November 1917, and in the Central Black Earth Region, the Volga region and Siberia, the process of recognition of Soviet power dragged on until the end of January 1918.
Name and celebration of the October Revolution
Since Soviet Russia switched to the new Gregorian calendar in 1918, the anniversary of the Petrograd uprising fell on November 7. But the revolution was already associated with October, which was reflected in its name. This day became an official holiday in 1918, and starting from 1927, two days became holidays - November 7 and 8. Every year on this day, demonstrations and military parades took place on Red Square in Moscow and in all cities of the USSR. The last military parade on Red Square in Moscow to commemorate the anniversary of the October Revolution took place in 1990. Since 1992, November 8 became a working day in Russia, and in 2005, November 7 was also abolished as a day off. Until now, the Day of the October Revolution is celebrated in Belarus, Kyrgyzstan and Transnistria.