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History of groundwater studies.

The accumulation of knowledge about groundwater, which began in ancient times , accelerated with the advent of cities and irrigated agriculture. The art of constructing dug wells up to several tens of meters was known for 2000-3000 thousand years BC. in Egypt, Central Asia, India, China. During the same period, treatment with mineral waters appeared.

In the first millennium BC the first ideas about the properties and origin of natural waters, the conditions of their accumulation and the water cycle on Earth appeared (in the works of Thales and Aristotle - in Ancient Greece; Titus Lucretius Cara and Vitruvius - in Ancient Rome, and etc.).

The study of groundwater was facilitated by the expansion of work related to water supply, the construction of capture structures (for example, kariz among the peoples of the Caucasus, Central Asia), the extraction of salt water for evaporation of salt by digging wells, and then drilling (territory of Russia, 12th-17th centuries). Later the concept of waters arose non-pressure, pressure(rising from bottom to top) and self-pouring. The latter received the name artesian - from the province of Artois (ancient name “Artesia”) in France.

During the Renaissance and later, groundwater and its role in natural processes were devoted to the work of many scientists - Agricolla, Palissy, Steno, etc.

First in Russia scientific ideas about groundwater how natural solutions, their formation by infiltration of atmospheric precipitation and the geological activity of groundwater were expressed by M.V. Lomonosov in his essay “On the Layers of the Earth” (1763).

Branches of science that study groundwater.

Until mid-19th century The study of groundwater developed as an integral part of geology. Then it is isolated into a separate discipline - hydrogeology . General hydrogeology studies the origin of groundwater, its physical and Chemical properties, interaction with host rocks.

The study of groundwater in connection with the history of tectonic movements, processes of sedimentation and dianogenesis made it possible to approach the history of their formation and contributed to the emergence of a new branch of hydrogeology in the 20th century - paleohydrogeology (the study of underground waters of past geological eras).

Dynamics of groundwater studies the movement of groundwater under the influence of natural and artificial factors, develops methods for quantitative assessment of the productivity of production wells and groundwater reserves.

The doctrine of the regime and balance of groundwater considers changes in groundwater (their level, temperature, chemical composition, conditions of nutrition and movement), which occur under the influence of various natural factors (precipitation and the conditions of its infiltration, evaporation, temperature and humidity of the air and soil layer, the influence of the regimes of surface reservoirs, rivers, man-made activities).

In the second half of the 20th century began to be developed methods for forecasting groundwater regime , which is of great practical importance in the exploitation of groundwater, hydraulic engineering construction, irrigated agriculture and other issues.

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Lecture 3. FUNDAMENTALS OF HYDROGEOLOGY

1. The concept of groundwater

2. Classification of groundwater

3. Dynamics of groundwater

4. Inflow of groundwater to water intake structures

5. Fight against groundwater

CONCEPT OF GROUNDWATER

WATER is a miracle of nature, the most necessary existing substance on Earth. Our well-being, the very fact of the existence of life on Earth, depends on water. The human body, by weight, consists mainly of water. In a newborn – 75%, in an adult – 60% of body weight.

Water on the globe has a very complex relationship with living things. It is necessary not only to support life, it is also a product of living things. Water is omnipresent, ubiquitous and multifaceted.

A remarkable scientist, creator of geochemistry V.I. VERNADSKY wrote: “Water stands apart in the history of our planet; there is no natural body that could compare with it in its influence on the course of the main, most ambitious geological processes...”

The waters located in the upper part of the EARTH'S CRUST and lying below the surface of the earth are called UNDERGROUND. The study of groundwater is carried out by the branch of geology - HYDROGEOLOGY.

Hydrogeology is the science of groundwater, its origin, properties, forms of occurrence, nature and laws of movement, regime and reserves. She studies ways to use groundwater and methods of regulating it.

GROUND WATER forms the underground HYDROSPHERE; the mass of water contained in it is comparable to the World Ocean.

The practical importance of groundwater in human life is enormous. Groundwater is one of the main existing and promising sources of water supply, as it has a number of advantages:

1. It has a higher quality than surface waters (river, lake, and reservoir waters).

2. Does not require expensive cleaning.

3. Better protected from surface contamination.

4. Ubiquitous.

Groundwater is widely used for water supply, in the USA it accounts for about 20% of all water consumed, in Germany - 75%, in Belgium - 90%. In Russia they are also used The groundwater for central water supply. Thus, approximately 1000 artesian wells have been drilled within Moscow and the Moscow region.

But, when exploiting groundwater, it is necessary to keep in mind that if water consumption from underground reservoirs occurs faster than its reserves are replenished by moisture seeping into the ground from the atmosphere, then the groundwater level decreases, and this often causes adverse consequences.

Over the course of several decades, the groundwater level in Moscow dropped by more than 40 m, St. Petersburg - by 50 m, Kiev - by 65 m, London - by more than 100 m, in Paris - by 120 m, in Tokyo - by 150 m.

Moreover, if water is taken from layers of relatively loose rocks, this can lead to subsidence of the rock mass. Thus, Mexico City has dropped by 7 meters in 40 years.

It is also necessary to know that groundwater also has negative factors, which especially relate to construction.

The groundwater:

They complicate work under conditions of groundwater influx;

They deteriorate the bearing capacity of rocks as foundations of structures;

They lead to higher construction costs due to the installation of waterproofing and drainage.

Groundwater is in an inextricable connection and interaction with the rocks in which they form, accumulate and move.

In rocks, groundwater can be in the form of CHEMICALLY BOUND, VAPOR, PHYSICALLY BOUND, FREE, and SOLID.

CHEMICALLY BOUND water- this is almost not “water”, it is part of the crystal lattice of minerals and takes part in the structure of the crystal lattice. In SODA it is up to 64%, in the mineral MIRABILITE - 55%. It is not possible to isolate this water without destroying the crystal lattice. An exception is the mineral ZEOLITE - “CRYSTALING STONE” - crystallized water can be removed from it by heating.

STEAM water is water vapor that, together with air, fills all the pores and cracks in rocks that are not filled with water in the space between the earth’s surface and the constant level of groundwater. Steam can penetrate into certain layers of the earth's crust through cracks and voids from the atmosphere or from the deep bowels of the earth from hot aqueous solutions. Under certain conditions, vapors can condense and become liquid. Only a small part of the Earth's vaporous water is concentrated in the upper layers of the earth's crust. There is much more steam in the deep depths, where it is hot.

PHYSICALLY BOUND water– this is water formed on the surface of rock particles by CONDENSATION and ADSORPTION of vaporous water. Here HYGROSCOPIC and FILM water are isolated.

HYGROSCOPIC water is water that is firmly held on the surface of particles by MOLECULAR and ELECTRIC forces. It can be suppressed only at a temperature of 105-100 0 C. Depending on the amount of hygroscopic water retained on the rock particles, hygroscopicity is distinguished between INCOMPLETE (1) and MAXIMUM (2).

The presence of hygroscopic water in the rock is not noticeable to the eye. At the same time, the MAXIMUM hygroscopicity of fine-grained and clayey rocks can reach 18%; in coarser-grained rocks it drops to 1% of the dry matter mass.

FILM water is formed on rock particles at a humidity level exceeding the maximum hygroscopicity (3.4).

The surface of the particles is, as it were, enveloped in a film of water with a thickness of several molecular layers covering hygroscopic water.

The presence of film water in rocks is noticeable to the eye, since the rocks acquire a darker color. Film water is capable of moving as a liquid from thicker films to thinner films.

The maximum film water content is:

For sandy rocks - up to 7%;

For clayey rocks – up to 45%.

FREE water is the bulk of groundwater. It can move either down the slope - this is GRAVITATIONAL water, or up - CAPILLARY water.

Free water is not subject to the forces of attraction to the surface of rock particles. Gravitational water is subject to the force of gravity and is capable of transmitting HYDROSTATIC pressure. Gravity water moves through porous spaces and cracks in rocks. IN SATURATION ZONES, gravitational water forms AQUIFERS.

KIPALLARY water fills capillary pores and thin cracks in rocks and is held by surface tension forces. It rises from bottom to top, i.e. in the direction opposite to the action of gravity.

SOLID water - water in the form of crystals, layers and lenses of ice - is widespread in the permafrost zone.

The presence of one or another largely predetermines.

Groundwater Science

The first letter is "g"

Second letter "i"

Third letter "d"

The last letter is "I"

Answer for the clue "Groundwater science", 13 letters:
hydrogeology

Alternative crossword questions for the word hydrogeology

Branch of geology, the science of groundwater

Definition of the word hydrogeology in dictionaries

Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998 The meaning of the word in the dictionary Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998
HYDROGEOLOGY (from hydro... and geology) the science of groundwater; studies their composition, properties, origin, patterns of distribution and movement, as well as interaction with rocks. The formation of hydrogeology dates back to the 2nd half. 19th century

Great Soviet Encyclopedia The meaning of the word in the dictionary Great Soviet Encyclopedia
(from hydro... and geology), the science of groundwater, studying its composition and properties, origin, patterns of distribution and movement, as well as interaction with rocks. Geography is closely related to hydrology, geology (including engineering geology),...

Wikipedia Meaning of the word in the Wikipedia dictionary
Hydrogeology (from “water content” + geology) is a science that studies the origin, conditions of occurrence, composition and patterns of movement of groundwater. The interaction of groundwater with rocks, surface water and the atmosphere is also studied. To the sphere...

New explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, T. F. Efremova. The meaning of the word in the dictionary New explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, T. F. Efremova.
and. A scientific discipline that studies the origin, movement, properties of groundwater, as well as the possibilities of their use. Geological state of groundwater. territories.

Examples of the use of the word hydrogeology in literature.

Even during the time of Vernadsky hydrogeology how science has not yet acquired practical significance.

Jean Baptiste Lamarck in his work on hydrogeology to denote the totality of living organisms inhabiting the globe.

A special group consists of industries of applied importance: hydrogeology, engineering geology, geocryology, etc.

As such, the science of underground waters appeared in 1674 after the scientist P. Perrault published his work “The Origin of Sources”, and it received its official name after the publication in 1802 of the book “Hydrogeology, or Study of the influence of water on the surface of the globe” by J. Lemarck.

According to scientists, volume Groundwater is 60,000,000 km3, or 3.83% of the total volume of the hydrosphere. (source World Water Balance..., 1974; Gavrilenko, Derpgolts, 1971; etc.)

Groundwater is...

For a more precise understanding of what groundwater is as such, we present several definitions from authoritative dictionaries and encyclopedias.

Mountain encyclopedia

Groundwater ... is water found in the rock strata of the upper part of the earth's crust in liquid, solid and vapor states. P.v. are part of the Water Resources. In the areas of existence of P. v. temperature ranges from -93 to 1200°C, pressure - from several to 3000 MPa...

A. A. Konoplyantsev.

Mountain encyclopedia. M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Edited by E. A. Kozlovsky. 1984 - 1991

Ecological dictionary

Groundwater - water, including mineral water, located in underground water bodies (Water Code of the Russian Federation)

EdwART. Terms and definitions on environmental protection, environmental management and environmental safety. Dictionary. 2010

Dictionary of Geography

Water located below the earth's surface in rocks and soil in any physical state.

Dictionary of Geography. 2015

Origin of groundwater

Origin Groundwater has long excited the imagination of the best minds of mankind. The most daring assumptions and hypotheses were expressed, and for the sake of fairness it should be noted that many of them turned out to be correct. There is reasonable speculation that groundwater was used in the arid regions of the Middle East, Central Asia and China as early as 3000-2000 BC. The first hypothesis about the origin of groundwater that has reached us dates back to the 7th century BC. e. It belongs to the ancient Greek philosopher Thales. Later, Plato expressed his agreement with this hypothesis. Ancient Greek philosophers assumed that groundwater came from air cooled in underground caves.

The groundwater exist in various states of aggregation. They accumulate in the thickness of the earth's crust and move there different ways through voids, pores and cracks. In places where waterproof rocks are present, they accumulate, forming interconnected underground reservoirs - underground aquifer systems that encircle the entire globe.

Groundwater has a wide variety of uses in economic activity person. Firstly, it is a source of fresh water, and secondly, underground water is a source of many important minerals for humans; healing mineral waters are well known to everyone. Hot or geothermal waters, which we discussed in detail in the article, or hot waters of the Earth, are not only sources useful minerals, but also give people affordable and free geothermal energy.

Types of groundwater

O. Meinzer (1935) classified the waters found in rocks as follows:

• Waters in a free state, capable of independent forms of movement, different depending on the specific type of water:
  * steam (vapor);
  * gravitational waters (seeping liquid droplets, underground flows);
  * in a supercritical state - underground water with a temperature and pressure above critical.
• Waters in a bound state, incapable of independent forms of movement, without transition to a free state (into other types of water):
  * water chemically bound to the crystalline structure of minerals;
  * water, physico-chemically and physically associated with the surface of mineral particles (skeleton) of rocks;
  * water in a transition state from bound to free, including capillary-bound water;
  * immobilized (vacuole) water;
  * solid water .

Based on the intensity of water exchange, groundwater can be divided into the following categories:

• The zone of active water exchange is 300/500 meters from the surface of the earth, the water renewal time is from several years to several tens of years;
• Zone of slow water exchange - 500/2000 meters from the surface of the earth, water renewal time is tens and hundreds of years;
• The passive water exchange zone is more than 2000 meters from the surface; water renewal takes place over millions of years.

Classification of groundwater by degree of mineralization:

• The zone of active water exchange is 300/500 meters from the surface of the earth, fresh water with a salt content of up to 1 gram/liter predominates;
• Zone of slow water exchange - 500/2000 meters from the surface of the earth, brackish waters with a salt content of 1 to 35 g/l;
• The zone of passive water exchange is more than 2000 meters from the surface, salt water is close in salinity to sea water, more than 35 g/l.

Classification subtitle water depending on the type of voids they fill:

• Pore ​​subsection water - in sand, pebbles...;
• Crack subsections water - in granites, sandstones and other rocks;
• Karst subsection water - water found in soluble rocks (gypsum, limestone, dolomite...).

Classification of groundwater by temperature (Shcherbakov, 1979)

An important factor is the temperature of the Groundwater. This issue was discussed in the article “ Thermal springs, or hot waters of the Earth." Note interesting fact— at great depths, water reaches the state of so-called “water plasma.” This state is characterized by the fact that, on the one hand, water ceases to be “water”, and on the other, it has not become water vapor. This happens when, due to high temperatures, the speed of movement of molecules is comparable to the speed of movement of water vapor molecules, and the density remains the same as that of liquid water. Such a steam-water mixture is often ejected to the surface in the form of so-called Geysers.

Supercooled groundwater

• Heat level: exceptionally cold.
• Temperature scale: below 0 °C.
• transition to a solid state.

Cold groundwater - type No. 1

• Heat level: very cold.
• Temperature scale: below 0-4 °C.
• Physical and biochemical criteria for temperature limits: 3.98°C is the temperature of maximum density of water.

Cold groundwater - type No. 2

• Heat level: moderately cold.
• Temperature scale: below 4-20 °C.
• Physical and biochemical criteria for temperature limits: The unit of viscosity (centipoise) is determined at a temperature of 20°C.

Thermal underground waters - type No. 1

• Heat level: warm.
• Temperature scale: below 20-37 °C.
• Physical and biochemical criteria for temperature limits: human body temperature is about 37°C.

Thermal underground waters - type No. 2

• Heat level: hot.
• Temperature scale: below 37-50 °C.
• Physical and biochemical criteria for temperature limits: optimal temperature for bacterial growth.

Thermal underground waters - type No. 3

• Heat level: quite hot.
• Temperature scale: below 50-100 °C.
• Physical and biochemical criteria for temperature limits: transition to a vapor state.

Overheated groundwater - type No. 1

• Heat level: moderately overheated.
• Temperature scale: below 100-200 °C.
• Physical and biochemical criteria for temperature limits: thermometamorphism (hydrolysis of carbonates with the release of CO2, generation of abiogenic H2S, etc.).

Overheated groundwater - type No. 2

• Heat level: very overheated.
• Temperature scale: below 200-372 °C.
• Physical and biochemical criteria for temperature limits: coalification processes organic matter and formation of hydrocarbons.

Non-pressure waters:

• Groundwater and perched water are the first aquifers from the surface of the earth, or otherwise aquifers, lying on the first impervious layer (unlike perennial water, groundwater is usually associated with the presence of a regionally widespread layer of low-permeability rocks, these waters feed wells);
• Interstratal waters, aquifer systems - underground reservoirs, often interconnected, in which the waterproof layer is located both above and below;
• Fissure and fissure-karst groundwater.

Pressure water or Artesian water

Pressure waters or Artesian waters are artesian basins in which water is under pressure/hydraulic pressure between two waterproof rocks.

Juvenile waters

We also want to focus on the so-called Juvenile waters. By which we mean waters, the origin of which is due to the processes of synthesis of hydrogen and oxygen in magmatic melts. Further, these waters, rising upward, mix with other types of Groundwater. The hypothesis about Juvenile waters was first formulated in 1902 by the Austrian geologist E. Suess.

It should be noted that in permafrost zones, the upper level groundwater is frozen and in a solid state.

One of the forms of Groundwater is the so-called “physically bound water”. It received this formulation because when interacting with rock particles it is attracted by them. The smaller the particles, the more water they can attract.

There is a lot of ordinary water underground, which is located there due to gravity, as a result of which they are called “gravitational waters”. Among them, two types can be distinguished - pressure and non-pressure water.

Physical properties of groundwater

There are such physical properties groundwater:

• Turbidity and transparency;
• Chroma;
• Smell and taste;
• Temperature;
• Viscosity;
• Radioactivity.

The topic of Groundwater is very extensive and it is obvious that it is simply impossible to display it in one article. We tried to highlight the most important, from our point of view, points. We will be glad if this material encourages you to study such an interesting topic in more detail.

HYDROGEOLOGY (from the Greek hydor - water and geology * a. hydrogeology, geohydrology; n. Hydrogeologie; f. hydrogeologie; i. hidrogeologia) is the science of, studying their composition, properties, formation, distribution, movement and interaction with the environment ( and surface waters). Main sections of hydrogeology: general hydrogeology; ; groundwater dynamics; ; petroleum hydrogeology; reclamation hydrogeology; hydrogeochemistry; the doctrine of search, exploration and assessment of groundwater reserves; doctrine about and industrial waters. Hydrogeology is closely related to hydrology, meteorology and other sciences. In hydrogeological studies, geological, geophysical, chemical, physical, mathematical and other methods are used.

Historical reference. Information about groundwater has been known since ancient times. Wells several tens of meters deep are known from 2-3 thousand years BC. in Egypt, Central Asia, and other countries. By the 1st millennium BC. refers to the beginning of ideas about the properties of natural waters, their origin, conditions of accumulation and the water cycle on Earth (Thales, Aristotle, Lucretius). The study of groundwater was facilitated by work on water supply, installation of capture structures, and extraction. During the Renaissance and later, the works of Agricola, Palissy and others were devoted to the study of groundwater.

In Russia, the first scientific ideas about groundwater were given in the 18th century. , about at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. — . Hydrogeology began to take shape as an independent branch of the natural sciences in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. A major role in the development of hydrogeology was played by, and others. The founders of the Soviet school are G. N. Kamensky, S. N. Nikitin, N. F. Pogrebov, P. I. Butov, A. F. Lebedev, N. N. Slavyanov , O.K. Lange, B.L. Lichkov, A.N. Semikhatov and others, who developed the basic principles of general and regional hydrogeology. To develop groundwater dynamics important role played by movement studies groundwater in layers, the movement of groundwater to drainage structures (N. E. Zhukovsky, N. N. Pavlovsky, G. N. Kamensky); For the development of methods for hydrogeological exploration work, the works of G. N. Kamensky, M. E. Altovsky, N. A. Plotnikov, and S. V. Troyansky were of great importance during this period.

In the 30-40s. Significant progress has been made in the development of hydrogeology of mining areas. During these same years, the doctrine of the regime and balance of groundwater was formed, the patterns of their change under the influence of climate and hydrology were determined, methods were developed for studying the regime of groundwater in general, and especially for irrigated areas (M. M. Krylov, M. A. Veviorovskaya, A. A. Konoplyantsev); patterns of formation of thermal, mineral waters, industrial brines were established, hydrothermal pools of groundwater were discovered (N.N. Slavyanov, F.A. Makarenko, T.P. Afanasyev, A.M. Ovchinnikov, etc.). The doctrine of provinces of mineral waters is being created (N. I. Tolstikhin, A. M. Ovchinnikov, V. V. Ivanov, N. A. Marinov); petroleum hydrogeology is being formed. The doctrine of underground waters in the frozen zone is being developed - cryohydrogeology (A. V. Lvov, M. I. Sumgin, N. I. Tolstikhin). General, exploratory hydrogeochemistry and radiohydrochemistry are being developed (V.I. Vernadsky, O.A. Alekin, M.G. Valyashko, V.S. Samarina, etc.). New methods for searching for groundwater have been established, effective ways their intelligence. At the end of the 40s. Significant results have been achieved in developing the scientific basis for assessing groundwater resources. Their classifications, mapping methods, rationale for use have been proposed (N. A. Plotnikov, F. M. Bochever, M. E. Altovsky, N. N. Bindeman, U. M. Akhmedsafin, etc.).

In the 50-70s. Fundamental and applied research on hydrogeology, control of water inflows in, and water supply to mines continues (D. I. Shchegolev, S. V. Troyansky, N. I. Plotnikov, M. S. Gazizov, P. P. Klimentov, etc.). A theory of groundwater flow through low-permeability sediments is being developed, which served as the basis for experimental filtration studies (N.K. Girinsky, A.N. Mityaev, etc.). In connection with the study of the patterns of formation and distribution of groundwater, large regional hydrogeological studies have been carried out and summarized (F. P. Savarensky, G. N. Kamensky, O. K. Lange, N. I. Tolstikhin, V. N. Kunin, G. V. Bogomolov, N.V. Rogovskaya, A.E. Babinets, etc.), multi-scale consolidated and complex ones were compiled (I.K. Zaitsev, B.I. Kudelin, I.V. Garmonov, N.A. Marinov, M. R. Nikitin, I. S. Zektser, etc.). For the first time in hydrogeological practice, the typification of groundwater deposits was carried out, proposed by N. I. Plotnikov (1959) and later improved by L. S. Yazvin and B. V. Borevsky. In the early 60s. Fundamentally new methods for assessing the exploitation of reserves have been created, based on the theories of elastic regime and unsteady filtration (F. M. Bochever, N. N. Bindeman, V. N. Shchelkachev, etc.). New principles have been developed for forecasting, identifying, mapping, and regional assessment of water resources in the subsoil of arid regions (U. M. Akhmedsafin and others).

Significant progress has been made in the study of hydrogeological processes using mathematical modeling methods (V. M. Shestakov, I. E. Zhernov, V. A. Mironenko, I. K. Gavich). New important problems are being raised related to the protection of groundwater from depletion and pollution, research into the physicochemical nature of groundwater filtration through low-permeability separating layers and the processes of squeezing water out of clayey rocks, further study of issues of hydrogeology of deep zones, rifts, etc. The "Hydrogeological Map of the USSR" (scale 1:2,500,000), a map of underground flow, maps of thermal and mineral waters of the USSR, maps of groundwater and main aquifers, groundwater resources for the purposes of water supply and irrigation of a number of large areas have been published. A collective multi-volume monograph “Hydrogeology of the USSR” has been published, which outlines the conditions of occurrence, patterns of distribution and other issues of regional hydrogeology.

Abroad, French scientists A. Darcy, J. Dupuis, A. Chézy, German scientists E. Prinz, K. Keilhack, H. Hoefer, and American scientists A. Hazen, C. Slichter, O. Meinzer played a major role in the development of hydrogeology.

In the USSR, research in the field of hydrogeology is carried out at the Institute of Water Problems of the USSR Academy of Sciences (established in 1968) and the Institute of Hydrogeology and Hydrophysics of the Academy of Sciences of the Kazakhstan SSR (1965), as well as at industry institutes: VODGEO (1934), VSEGINGEO (1939), VIOGEM ( 1959), GIDROINGEO (1960) and others, at hydrogeological departments of universities. A major role in the development of hydrogeology belongs to the Laboratory of Hydrogeological Problems of the USSR Academy of Sciences named after. F. P. Savarensky (1940-50).